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This paper is concerned with the inscriptions and finishing marks present on the surfaces of the thousands of bronze weapons recovered together with the Terracotta Army at the mausoleum complex of Qin Shihuang, the First Emperor of China (259–210BC). After utilising the textual information from the inscriptions to reconstruct aspects of labour orga...
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... marks identified on many of their surfaces. Scratches and marks visible on some of the artefacts suggested that grinding or polishing took place after casting. Furthermore, some of the weapons display incised inscriptions, which vary from small symbols to relatively long sentences referring to the workshop or workers involved in their production (Fig. 1). One specific objective of this study was to investigate the techniques employed to engrave and polish bronze during the Qin period, including the shapes and materials of the tools, and their modes of utilisation. Particular attention was paid to the potential identification of mechanical devices, including rotary tools. Furthermore, ...
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... broadly parallel to each other and oriented diagonally. Although they appear predominantly on the casting seams, seemingly trying to remove imperfections, in some cases the marks embrace the entire circumference of the tangs. Under the SEM, the marks appear quite similar to those identified on triggers, hence suggesting a similar filing tool (Fig. 10). However, the fact that the filing marks sometimes turn around the curvature of the tangs suggests that either the files were curved or, alternatively, the tangs were mounted on a lathe to facilitate the ...
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... marks are found all over the surfaces of swords and lances, as well as on the arrowheads proper. In these cases, it is assumed that the aim of the polish was to obtain a smooth and shiny surface, as well as a sharp blade. On the swords and lances, the marks are generally longitudinal on the spine section, and transversal on the blade section (Fig. 11). On the arrow surfaces, these marks are transversal on all sides, and they often continue from one plane to another (Fig. 12). In some cases, it is possible to discern two stages of fine grinding/polishing on the arrowhead surfaces, one finer than the other, carried out in orien- tations perpendicular to each other. Sometimes these ...
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... that the aim of the polish was to obtain a smooth and shiny surface, as well as a sharp blade. On the swords and lances, the marks are generally longitudinal on the spine section, and transversal on the blade section (Fig. 11). On the arrow surfaces, these marks are transversal on all sides, and they often continue from one plane to another (Fig. 12). In some cases, it is possible to discern two stages of fine grinding/polishing on the arrowhead surfaces, one finer than the other, carried out in orien- tations perpendicular to each other. Sometimes these finer marks extend onto the surface of the arrow tangs, removing the evidence of the coarser filing described in the previous ...
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... examined under the SEM, the grinding marks on all three types of artefacts are remarkable in two aspects: on the one hand, their extreme fineness and high density; on the other hand, their perfectly parallel disposition (Fig. 13). Such characteristics leave little doubt that they originate from a mechanical grinding device, most likely a rotary tool. The comparative shallow archaeological marks suggest that only a very small amount of material was Fig. 9. Micrograph of filing marks experimentally produced on a brass surface using a hand-held stone. Compare to ...
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... filing marks experimentally produced on a brass surface using a hand-held stone. Compare to Fig. 8, but note the different scales. removed from the weapons' surfaces during this finishing stage. These technical interpretations are supported by our experimental replications created by grinding a brass surface using a small hard stone rotary wheel (Fig. ...
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... materials would better explain the continuity of polishing marks overlapping different planes of the same weapons, and their very presence in small, hardly accessible, intricate parts of the arrowheads. When we used a bristle brush on a brass surface, however, we obtained a pattern of marks that does not resemble exactly those in the weapons (Fig. 15). Further research will have to concentrate on the potential differences between grinding and polishing marks, and the possible materials and tools used during these ...
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... interesting finding of this work is the noteworthy similarity among the grinding marks detected on the different artefacts. This similarity applies to the thickness, density and relative shallowness of the marks (Fig. 16). Although the exact dates for the manufacture of the swords and arrowheads are unknown, the inscriptions on the lances indicated a narrow chronological range of 232e228BC (see above). The technical similarity of the grinding marks on all three artefact categories may be taken as an indication that all the weapons could have been ground ...
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... blades probably trimmed and ground using rotary wheels, because the lines are all parallel. The handle of the sword has a circular feature that seems to have been ground with a lathe, which was probably not balanced (Dong, 1999: 83). Furthermore, two gears from the following Han dynasty (202BCe212AD) show a similar mark, suggestive of mechanical Fig. 16. Details of the silicone casts of the grinding marks on lances, swords and arrowheads, taken at the same magnification to facilitate comparison. From top to bottom, (a) lance 860, (b) sword 854 and (c) arrow 2118 (the bright crusts on the latter are impressions of corrosion products). Compare to coarser filing marks on a trigger in ...
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Citations
... It possesses a robust structure, typically presenting as a lustrous black or deep green hue. This distinctive patina serves as a formidable barrier, effectively safeguarding the underlying bronze substrate [11][12][13][14][15][16]. Characteristically, Type-I patina evolves inward from the exterior of bronze artifact, preserving the original surface integrity. ...
This study compares the surface patina of ancient tin rich bronze with pure hydrothermally synthesized SnO2 nanoparticles using various analytical techniques, including metallographic microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy. The primary crystalline component of the patina consists of approximately 5 nm SnO2 nanoparticles, which closely resemble pure SnO2, indicating their comparability. Cu was also detected in the patina; however, it did not form crystalline structures. The X-ray diffraction results showed a shift in the patina’s peak, suggesting the infiltration of Cu into the SnO2 lattice, which compromises its crystallinity. In comparison to synthetic SnO2, the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectra of the patina revealed novel peaks corresponding to both Cu and O, indicating the presence of Cu−O−Sn bonding—a characteristic feature of type-I patina. This suggests that the primary structure of type-I patina consists of crystalline SnO2 nanoparticles, with a limited amount of Cu integrated into its lattice configuration. The concentration of Cu within the SnO2 crystal units is restricted, leading primarily to the formation of amorphous Cu2O in conjunction with Sn. The presence of Sn enhances the structural stability of Cu2O, facilitating its incorporation while inhibiting the crystallization of Cu2O. However, when the Sn concentration is insufficient, an inadequate Cu–O−Sn amorphous phase may form, allowing for the potential crystallization of Cu2O.
... At the beginning of the archaeological excavation of terracotta warriors pit in the 1970s, a large number of terracotta warriors and bronzes were unearthed [3][4][5]. Intriguingly, the excavated bronze weapons, such as sword, dagger-axe, spears, halberds, battle-axe, scimitar and arrowheads, featured with delicate craftsmanship and sharp blade even after more than 2,000 years of burial [6]. For a long time, the surface of bronze swords (Fig. 1) was recognized to undergo a treatment of chromate, providing the protection against rust and corrosion. ...
The origin of elemental chromium for the archaeological weapons from the pits of Qin terracotta warriors in China has been highly controversial. Although previous studies have highlighted that the chromium on the surface of weapon originated from the contamination of surrounding lacquer, the exact origin of chromium in the lacquer remains unclear. In this work, the measurement by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) firstly confirmed that the elemental chromium was indeed contained in the archaeological Qin original lacquer. Nevertheless, the amount of elemental chromium in the Qin lacquer was as low as 0.0759 μg/mg, disclosing that it was impossible to artificially add extra refined chromium-containing substance to the lacquer in the preparation of the terracotta warriors. The soil from the archaeological site of Qin lacquer was found to have a chromium amount of 0.0660 μg/mg by ICP-MS. After the hygrothermal and soil-buried aging cycles for the lab-prepared lacquer, the surface and depth elemental analyses by time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF–SIMS) showed a gradient distribution of elemental chromium from the surface to interior of aged lacquer, indicating the migration and enrichment behavior of elemental chromium from the burial soil towards the lacquer. To explore the migration mechanism of elemental chromium, fluorescence imaging technique was employed in combination with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations. The results revealed that catechol-containing fragments were formed during hygrothermal and soil-buried aging of lacquer and consequently coordinated with chromium ions, inducing the migration of elemental chromium towards the lacquer.
... Li, X. J., Martinón-Torres, M., Meeks, N. D., Xia, Y., & Zhao, K. (2011). Inscriptions, Filing, Grinding and Polishing Marks On The Bronze Weapons From The Qin Terracotta Army in China. ...
Salah satu sejarah kehidupan dinasti pada sejarah Tiongkok mencatat Dinasti Qin (221 – 206
SM) sebagai salah satu dinasti yang berperan dalam keberhasilannya menyatukan beberapa negara
yang berperang untuk mendapatkan suatu supremasi yang direbutkan pada masa Dinasti Zhou
(1046 – 221 SM). Sistem pemerintahan yang berpusat pada kekaisaran menjadikan dinasti di
Tiongkok dipimpin oleh seorang kaisar, pada pembahasan ini bahwa kaisar pertama di Dinasti Qin
adalah Kaisar Qin Shi Huang yang berhasil menyatukan negara-negara yang berperang demi
supremasi pada masa Dinasti Zhou sehingga secara tidak langsung Kaisar Qin telah berhasil untuk
menyelesaikan konflik antar negara tersebut dan mendapat gelar Qin Shi Huangdi. Atas usahanya
dalam keberhasilan menyatukan 7 negara tersebut membuat Kaisar Qin dipandang sebagai seorang
pemimpin yang berjasa meskipun selama kepemimpinannya berjalan secara kejam, kekejaman ini
mengarah pada terbentuknya bangunan-bangunan besar semasa berdirinya Dinasti Qin yang kini
menjadi bentuk peninggalan arkeologis. Kekejaman yang dilakukan oleh Kaisar Qin mengundang
banyak kudeta untuk membunuhnya sehingga berdampak pada keinginan Kaisar Qin untuk hidup
abadi dan mempersiapkan kematiannya dengan membangun makam untuk dirinya sendiri yang
dilengkapi dengan susunan bangunan serupa dengan istana yang menjadi harapan Kaisar Qin
untuk dapat melanjutkan kepemimpinannya di alam lain, salah satu hal yang menarik untuk diteliti
dalam struktur pembangunan makam Kaisar Qin adalah karena di dalamnya terdapat Terracotta
Army atau Tentara Terakota yang menjadi bagian dari persiapan kehidupan abadi yang diharapkan
oleh Kaisar Qin.
... Then, the brooch was placed under a stereo microscope at varying levels of magnification to search for and photograph instances of wear. The wear was then categorized and analyzed according to a system partially synthesized from Li et al.'s investigation into Chinese bronze weapons (Li et al. 2011). ...
... Polishing marks on the Scorton sample support this dual interpretation of cruciform brooches. While it seems polishing the brooches to maintain their appearance was done frequently (according to methods of reading use wear established by Li et al. 2011), it was likely not conducted with specialized tools and occasionally resulted in damage to the brooches. Therefore, we might assume that the maintenance of their appearance, while frequent, was not a reverent act. ...
Brooches have long been used as a diagnostic tool in dating and in discussions of
identity in Migration Period populations. Previous studies of cruciform brooches in particular have presented broad estimations of their importance in crafting identity and in providing date ranges for Anglo-Saxon sites. However, holistic studies of the object biographies of brooches are less ubiquitous in the literature, and are rarely applied on the scale of a single site. Using a sample of cruciform brooches from an Anglian cemetery in Scorton, North Yorkshire (c. 5th-6th century), this study investigates individual object biographies in the context of both a community and a culture. It proposes an interdisciplinary methodology for analysing the production, exchange, use, and deposition of copper alloy brooches, incorporating geographic and stylistic analysis, use wear analysis, and pXRF. This study presents new findings about the minutiae of brooch production and distribution by artisans. It discusses the role that traditional, outward symbols of prestige played in tertiary Anglo-Saxon settlements, as well as suggesting ways in which brooch wearing and deposition can inform us about ideological attitudes of the Anglo-Saxons toward death and the body.
... In the Bronze Age [9], as the first country to employ copper smelting, China mastered the advanced casting post-processing technology. The rasp was used to compensate for casting defects, make the casting surface smooth, and make weapons and tools sharper and more polished [10]. After entering the Iron Age, rotary grinding tools appeared [11], which provided a reference for subsequent mechanical grinding. ...
Although grinding is essential in the production of castings, the casting grinding process in manufacturing is complicated and there are many difficulties, such as the large amount of noise in the grinding environment, non-structural casting entities, and the inclination in the overall shape–time variation. Even in the face of complex technology and a variety of difficulties, modern casting grinding technology still demands large-batch production, low cost, fast response, thin brittleness, high precision, etc. The grinding process has a long history. This paper focus on its development from a human-operated, mechanical job, to an automatic grinding task based on compliant control theory. However, the methods mentioned above can no longer satisfy the current production need. In recent years, researchers have proposed intelligent grinding methods to meet the needs of modern casting production, and provided various strategies and alternatives to the challenges of machining accuracy, machining efficiency, and surface consistency. The research direction of casting polishing has mainly focused on online robot detection, material removal prediction, constant grinding contact force control, and high-precision matching. Although applications for online detection and constant grinding contact force control exist in industry, there are challenges in material removal prediction and three-dimensional high-precision matching. This paper also compares and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of different grinding methods, and puts forward some research directions for future work, so as to promote more intelligent and efficient grinding of complex castings in practical application.
... For instance, in the fallen soldiers' tomb in M44 in the Yan state capital, the majority of the weapons (51 out of 53 in total) were made of iron, including swords, spears, halberds and armours etc., while only one sword and one dagger-axe were made of bronze (Liu 1975 Regarding the bronze weapons buried with the terracotta army, it is more reasonable to believe that such weapons were specifically produced to be buried with the emperor rather than reflecting the actual choice of weapon usage in the Qin army. While previous study has demonstrated that the production of such weapons was well organised, and the final products were finely alloyed and sharpened, which seems to be suggesting a utilitarian purpose Li et al. 2014;Li et al. 2011;Li et al. 2016;Bevan et al. 2018). However, it needs to be born in mind that the terracotta army is a special case since it is designed to serve the emperor's afterlife, and the cost of production will be less relevant. ...
This thesis focuses on the Qin State during the Warring States period as a political entity, and sets out to explore its iron production industry, aiming to model and understand the technological system adopted for iron production, tracing changes through time as well as exploring the interaction between the technology and its social context. Through the scientific study of archaeological iron unearthed from Qin civilian cemeteries and workshop across the Guanzhong Plain, it has been demonstrated that the iron production in the Qin state was predominantly based on cast iron smelting from the later stage of the middle Warring States period, with multiple technical pathways developed to cost-effectively produce various types of iron products. The mould casting process was adopted for producing most of the daily use artefacts and farming implements, with controlled cooling and annealing process applied to improve the mechanical strength of cast iron. Annealing and chaogang/fining techniques were used to convert cast iron into soft iron/steel, then further manufacture into tools and weapons through the forging process. Through the comparison between different technological choices, it has been demonstrated that the whole technological system was developed based on the aim to achieve optimum cost-effectiveness with the available techniques, while the technological tradition and cultural preferences also played key roles for the adoption of such an iron production system. Based on a synthesis of current research results, it has been argued that the State of Qin made the transition from bloomery iron smelting to cast iron smelting during the middle stage of the Warring States period, then quickly developed a functional and efficient technological system by the end of the Warring States period. This iron production system greatly promoted the development of the Qin state, mainly in the field of agricultural production, while weapon production for the Qin army also benefited from such an iron industry, which laid the foundations for the success of the unification war.
... Again, very clear evidence of strong abrasive cleaning is seen as a series of fine criss-crossing linear score marks. The fine shine on this side likely indicates recent abrasive cleaning caused by mechanical polishing of the surface [34]. For mirror 1 the marks can be seen on-top of some protruding corrosion rather than passing beneath them ( Fig. 2a and d). ...
This article presents a generic, objective and evidence based forensic study of 4 very different Chinese bronze mirrors. The work was done within the Architectural Conservation Laboratory (ACLab), the Department of Physics, the Faculty of Medicine and also the Planetary Spectroscopy and Mineralogy Laboratory (PSML) all at the University of Hong Kong. The mirrors nominally cover the period of the Warring States (475–221 BC), Han (206 BC to 220 AD) and later Song (960–1279AD) dynasties. Comprehensive, mostly non-invasive, analytical methods and techniques were used. These included surface microscopy of tool marks, patina, corrosion and any residual archaeological evidence. Ultraviolet radiation examination, chemical spot testing and polarised light microscopy of ground-up patina samples was also done. More sophisticated “pXRF” X-ray fluorescence, “MARS” tomographic X-ray scanning and infrared spectroscopic analysis of the bronze alloys, corrosions and any earthen encrustations were also performed. This was to uncover as much forensic evidence as possible for these unprovenanced bronze mirrors. The results have revealed key metallurgical information of those four mirrors along with surface patina morphology and details of the corrosion and residual surface archaeology. A database on the physical condition of these mirrors has been established and burial/treatment history revealed. Mirrors 1 and 2 appear to have been heavily cleaned, polished and treated with abrasives in modern times. Mirror 2 in particular, has some problematic corrosion and inconclusive alloy composition. Mirror 3 and 4 both have archaeological evidence and no contrary forensic data that questions authenticity. Forensic study and verification of objects and artworks for academic purposes remains a legitimate and vital undertaking for universities, museums and national collections across the globe. Hence, the issue of authenticity when archaeological context is lacking is discussed. However, our key aim is to establish what can be learnt from technological, forensic investigation when studying bronze mirrors without further context and records, and what firm, generic evidence can be extracted from such close forensic examination to shed light on their true nature. We hope this will be useful for other researchers.
... On mirror 1 and 2, by using the polarized light microscope (PLM) with re ected light, parallel lines with sharp angles were observed. This type of line is likely caused by mechanical polishing of the surface [34]. For mirror 1 the marks can be seen ontop of some protruding corrosion rather than passing beneath them ( Fig. 2a & 2d). ...
This article presents a generic, objective and evidence based forensic study of 4 very different Chinese bronze mirrors. The work was done within the Architectural Conservation Laboratory (ACLab), the Department of Physics and also the Planetary Spectroscopy and Mineralogy Laboratory (PSML) at the University of Hong Kong. The mirrors nominally cover the period of the Warring States (475-221BC), Han (206 BC to 220AD) and later Song (960-1279AD) dynasties. Comprehensive, mostly non-invasive, analytical methods and techniques were used. These included surface microscopy of tool marks, patina, corrosion and any residual archaeological evidence. Ultraviolet radiation examination, chemical spot testing and polarised light microscopy of ground-up patina samples was also done. More sophisticated “pXRF” X-ray fluorescence , “MARS” tomographic X-ray scanning and infrared spectroscopic analysis of the bronze alloys, corrosions and any earthen encrustations were also performed. This was to uncover as much forensic evidence as possible for these unprovenanced bronze mirrors. The results have revealed key metallurgical information of those four mirrors along with surface patina morphology and details of the corrosion and residual surface archaeology. A database on the physical condition of these mirrors has been established and burial/treatment history revealed. Mirrors 1 and 2 appear to have been heavily cleaned, polished and treated with abrasives in modern times. Mirror 2 in particular, has some problematic corrosion and inconclusive alloy composition. Mirror 3 and 4 both have archaeological evidence and no contrary forensic data that questions authenticity. Forensic study and verification of objects and artworks for academic purposes remains a legitimate and vital undertaking for universities, museums and national collections across the globe. Hence, the issue of authenticity when archaeological context is lacking is discussed. However, our key aim is to establish what can be learnt from technological, forensic investigation when studying bronze mirrors without further context and records, and what firm, generic evidence can be extracted from such close forensic examination to shed light on their true nature. We hope this will be useful for other researchers.
... On mirror 1 and 2, by using the polarized light microscope (PLM) with reflected light, parallel lines with sharp angles were observed. This type of line is likely caused by mechanical polishing of the surface [34]. ...
This article presents an objective, evidence based, forensic study undertaken within the HKU Architectural Conservation Laboratory (ACLab) and Department of Physics conducted on 4 very different bronze mirrors from a private collection. They nominally cover the period from the Warring States (475-221BC), Han (206 BC to 220AD) and later Song (960-1279AD) dynasties. Comprehensive, mostly non-invasive, analytical methods and techniques were applied in this endeavour. These included surface microscopy of tool marks, patina, corrosion and any residual archaeological evidence. Ultraviolet radiation examination, chemical spot testing and polarised light microscopy of ground-up patina samples was also undertaken. More sophisticated “pXRF” X-ray fluorescence and “MARS” tomographic X- ray scanning analysis of the bronze alloy, corrosions and any earthen encrustations were also performed. This was all done to uncover as much forensic evidence as possible concerning these unprovenanced bronze mirrors. The combined results have revealed key metallurgical information of those four mirrors along with surface patina morphology and details of the corrosion and residual surface archaeology. A database on the physical condition of these 4 mirrors has been established and burial/treatment history revealed. Mirrors 1 and 2 appear to have been heavily cleaned, polished and treated with abrasives in modern times. Both of them but mirror 2 in particular have some problematic corrosion and inconclusive alloy composition. Mirror 3 and 4 both have archaeological evidence and no contrary forensic data that questions their authenticity. The issue of the possible authenticity of an object when archaeological context is lacking is discussed but this was not the ultimate goal of this research. The key aim is to establish what can be learnt from technological forensic investigation when studying bronze mirrors without archaeological context and records, and what firm evidence can be extracted from such close forensic examination to shed light on their true nature.
... 17 According to Jagchid, the poor health of the horses was due to "transportation conditions" under the Tang administration. 18 In this he seems to refer to the situation denounced by Yuan Zhen (779-831) in the poem "Yin Mountain Route," exactly the same title as Bai Juyi's, which he composed in 809. The poem is complementary to that of his close friend Bai, in the sense that it does not contradict it, but places the blame of the imbalance more squarely on the moral and structural shortcomings of the various Tang agents. ...
... 17 Many examples of bronze crossbow triggers have been found in archeological excavations across the country. These include the tomb of the Marquis of Yi of Zeng (Zeng Hou Yi 曾侯乙) dating from about 433 BC in Hubei 湖北, southern China, and at the tomb site of China's first emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝, which dates to around 221-206 BC. 18 Dong Sun culture sites in northern Vietnam, on the fringes of the Chinese cultural orbit, date to as early as 100 BC. 19 Motifs of mythic archers and other instances of heroes and more common folk using weapons and tools of war and the hunt appear in various narrative situations within oral literature from the Yi 彝, Qiang 羌, Miao 苗, Yao 瑶, Zhuang 壮, Wa 佤and many other ethnic groups of China's multicultural southwest. ...
