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The estimated difference between the LCOE for a ground-mounted PV system and an elevated agrivoltaic system designed for a DLI of 16 mol/m 2 /day. The LCOE of a ground-mounted system is always lower, however, the relative difference in the South is only 15% while in the North the deviation can be larger than 100%.
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Agrivoltaic systems (a combination of agricultural crop production and photovoltaics (PV) on the same land) have an increasing interest. Realizing this upcoming technology raises still many challenges at design, policy and economic level. This study addresses a geospatial methodology to quantify the important design and policy questions across Euro...
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... These include the infinitely long array, isotropic and homogeneous light reflection from the ground, and the visibility of the ground from the array's slope to the infinite horizon. To address these limitations, two common techniques are used to account for shading in APV system projection and view-factors (2D or 3D) [22][23][24][25][26]33,34,[39][40][41][42][43][44], and ray-tracing [2,35,[45][46][47]. These methods aim to enhance modelling accuracy by considering the heterogeneous nature of ground-reflected irradiance in APV systems, shading from nearby objects, and row-to-row shading. ...
... While existing irradiance models typically use the horizontal height of the upper canopy as the primary variable for estimating the total irradiance received by the crop [22,23,35,39], this approach does not fully capture the complexity of real-world conditions. The irradiance received by an individual leaf is influenced by numerous factors, including the spatial arrangement of the leaves, the degree of leaf overlap, and the position of the sun in the sky [39]. ...
... While existing irradiance models typically use the horizontal height of the upper canopy as the primary variable for estimating the total irradiance received by the crop [22,23,35,39], this approach does not fully capture the complexity of real-world conditions. The irradiance received by an individual leaf is influenced by numerous factors, including the spatial arrangement of the leaves, the degree of leaf overlap, and the position of the sun in the sky [39]. To develop more accurate irradiance models, additional factors affecting light distribution within the canopy must be considered. ...
Modelling and simulation of agrivoltaic systems are fundamental to predict crop and energy performance before installation and meet regulatory frameworks. • Integrated modelling platforms for agrivoltaic systems must holistically consider the processes affecting crop growth and energy performances. • Future research should focus on standardised approaches and collaborative validation for various agrivoltaic configurations. Agrivoltaic systems combine food production and solar energy conversion on the same land, offering a dual-use approach to address land use concerns in renewable energy development. One of the main research and market challenges for agrivoltaic systems is the ability to predict food and energy yields prior to installation. The photovoltaic modules reduce solar irradiation on the ground, altering the energy balance at the ground and crop levels, affecting thus evapotranspiration and photosynthesis. The photovoltaic modules also influence local rain distribution and wind patterns, creating a microclimate that impacts both crop production and photovoltaic efficiency. The need to evaluate these effects and their impact on crop growth before installation is underscored by the recent implementation of new standards, guidelines, and regulations governing agrivoltaic systems in various regions. This study provides a critical review of existing research with a focus on the modelling, simulation , and optimisation of agrivoltaic systems. It highlights recent advancements in simulating and optimising the design of agrivoltaic systems through integrated simulations of shading, microclimates, electrical performance , and agricultural productivity. This study highlights the critical role of optimised light distribution in enhancing both crop yields and electricity production within agrivoltaic systems. However, the diversity of modelling approaches from the PV and agricultural sectors, coupled with the absence of standardised benchmarks , complicates the selection of appropriate models for specific systems and conditions. Future research should prioritise the development of standardised benchmarks to enable consistent comparisons across models, facilitating a better understanding of trade-offs between computational efficiency, interpretability, and accuracy. Collaborative efforts, publicly available datasets, and benchmarking initiatives are essential for validating models across diverse agrivoltaic configurations and regions.
... Pilot sites across Europe show that the design of APV solutions always has to be adapted to location-specific climatic conditions [26]. So far, experimental studies have been limited to specific GH typologies and conditions, where the location, orientation, geometry, and materials of GHs vary substantially from one to another, therefore leading to different findings. ...
... For each GH configuration and dependent on the site, different PV configurations might be more beneficial and there is no general, optimal solution for PV placement. This agrees with the experimental studies and pilot sites across Europe, which showed that the design of APV solutions always has to be adapted to location-specific climatic conditions [26]. For GHs, different studies indicate that checkerboard patterns and semi-transparent PV modules improve light uniformity [29,65]. ...
A key challenge in designing agrivoltaic systems is avoiding or minimizing the negative impact of photovoltaic-induced shading on crops. This study introduces a novel ray-tracing-based irradiance model for evaluating the irradiance distribution inside agrivoltaic greenhouses taking into account the transmission characteristics of the greenhouse’s cover material. Simulations are based on satellite-derived irradiance data and are performed with high spatial and temporal resolution. The model is tested by reproducing the agrivoltaic greenhouse experiment of a previous study and comparing the simulated irradiance to the experimentally measured data. The coordinates of the sensor positions in the presented application are optimized based on one day of raw data of minutely measured irradiance from the experimental study. These coordinates are then used to perform simulations over an extended timeframe of several months to take into account the seasonal changes throughout a crop cycle. The average deviation between the simulations and the experimental measurements in terms of radiation reduction is determined as 2.88 percentage points for the entire crop cycle.
... For instance, elevating solar panels (Fig. 7) allows for integration of taller crops and livestock grazing within AVS. Overhead AVS also enhances solar irradiation underneath them, promoting more uniform sunlight distribution [122]. Katsikogiannis et al. report that the annual average solar irradiation at ground level linearly increased by 3% when solar panels were elevated from 2 to 7 m [108]. ...
In co-locating agriculture and solar photovoltaics (PV) on the same land, agrivoltaic systems (AVS) afford opportunities to meet global food and energy demand while contributing to renewable energy targets. Here we show that in addition to renewable energy, AVS provide co-benefits such as enhanced crop/pasture water-use efficiencies (up to 150–300 % improvement), greater land-use efficiency (up to 200 % gains), reduced irrigation demand (14% reduction), improved profit (up to 15 fold) and more consistent interannual crop/pasture production compared with conventional agricultural production systems in isolation. Such synergies are amplified in locations characterized by arid, semi-arid and hot conditions that are conducive to transient or chronic plant water deficit. Bifacial solar panels achieve higher electricity yield per unit area compared with conventional monofacial panels, support plant growth by allowing greater solar radiation transmission, and provide flexibility in the selection of azimuth and tilt angle at which solar panels are installed. Bifacial panels thus afford complementarity with common agricultural practices, such as cultivation and/or livestock grazing. Although AVS have higher installation costs than conventional PV systems (5–40% greater), practitioners of subsidized projects report competitive returns on investment (payback period <10 years) and benefits associated with revenue diversification, including enterprise drought resilience. Conversion of agricultural land to AVS offers manifold environmental benefits, including mitigation of global warming, reduced eutrophication, and more effective utilization of land resources.
... Moreover, improved moisture retention reduced irrigation needs by up to 160 %. The benefits of AVS depend on crop shade tolerance, climatic region and solar PV panel density [34]. Planting crops under solar panels produced mixed results in a German pilot installation [35]. ...
... For example, evapotranspiration was found to decrease up to 30 % for lettuce and cucumbers [31,80], resulting in substantial water savings of up to 300 % [32,33,80] and improved soil moisture levels [13]. However, the results are crop-specific [31] and influenced by the optimum plant light requirements and the shading rate of the solar array in a particular geographic region, estimated by the ground coverage ratio [34]. For instance, ground coverage ratios for wheat cultivation in Northern European regions were determined to be below 50 % to maintain an agricultural reference yield, which means that 2 ha of land would be required to produce 1 GW of solar PV. ...
... However, the applicability of the results may vary in regions with different climatic and agricultural conditions. For instance, in more Northern regions with higher precipitation levels, the shading effect of solar panels and habitat-enhancing elements such as hedges could reduce sunlight availability, potentially hindering photosynthesis [34] and diminishing the effectiveness of the AVS scenarios, particularly for crops that require high light intensity for optimal growth [35]. Careful calibration of panel spacing, tilt angles, and selection of land cover types is crucial in such regions to ensure that energy production and agricultural outputs are balanced. ...
Agrivoltaics offers a promising solution to the dual challenge of ensuring food security and expanding renewable energy infrastructure while optimising land use and bolstering climate resilience. This study addresses a research gap by evaluating habitat-enhancing strategies for agrivoltaics. Using the InVEST modelling framework, the effectiveness of these strategies on key ecosystem services-carbon storage, sediment retention, water retention, and pollinator supply-was assessed. Fifty-one utility-scale solar farms in NorthEastern Germany served as a hypothetical case study to analyse the potential ecosystem service benefits between habitat-enhanced and conventional farming practices in agrivoltaics. The Mini and Midi scenarios, aligned with the German agrivoltaic standard, integrated up to 15 % of habitat-enhancing elements in the field, while Maxi incorporated 22 %. Eco-Horticulture and Agriforst Orchard explored agricultural diversification by combining annual and perennial crops with habitat-enhancing features. Model results revealed significant ecosystem service gains compared to conventional farming practices: a 33-88 % increase in pollinator supply, 9-22 % in water retention, 7.5-20 % in sediment retention, and up to 8 % in carbon storage. Notably, the diversification approaches demonstrated exceptional potential to enhance biodiversity while providing income diversification for farmers. The study provides actionable insights for policymakers to scale agrivoltaics in line with countries' biodiversity targets and inform future agrivoltaic standards, balancing renewable energy deployment, land use efficiency and biodiversity conservation, aligned with multiple SDGs. Integrating habitat-enhancing features in agrivoltaics could improve the aesthetic appeal of solar infrastructure, fostering public acceptance. Further field studies are recommended to validate outcomes in agrivoltaic-specific microclimatic conditions and refine strategies to local contexts.
... While common for PV and wind, AV-specific site suitability studies are limited in number. Willockx et al. (2022) investigated the larger European context for general AV potential. However, this study used a much coarser scale. ...
... This tolerance allows for denser PV panel setups, Table 7 Electrical potential of candidate AV systems for different crop types in Flanders and their total potential AV electrical capacity and yield. (Willockx et al., 2022). The overall economic balance of an AV system, considering both energy and agricultural elements is a complex interplay between geographic, management and design choices. ...
CONTEXT: Flanders, a densely populated region in Belgium, faces challenges in balancing agricultural production
with renewable energy targets. Agrivoltaic systems combine solar energy and agricultural activity on the
same field and can increase land productivity while simultaneously expanding the share of renewables. However,
its potential and implications for the region is geographically complex.
OBJECTIVE: This research aims to assess the suitability of Flanders’ 658,000 ha agricultural land for agrivoltaic
systems, using a geographical multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA), considering environmental, technical,
agronomic, and cultural criteria to optimize land use for simultaneous food and energy production.
METHODS: We describe a Geographic information system Multiple-criteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) using
QGis-software. Expert stakeholder input was incorporated by applying the pairwise comparison method from the
analytical hierarchical process (AHP). Criterion weights are applied to seven classifiers: irradiance, soil suitability,
slope, orientation (aspect), crop type, flood risk and distance to roads/grid. Areas with particular societal,
ecological, economic, and historical importance are excluded. The resulting scores are then placed in their
agronomic and energy context.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Our analysis indicates that 60.4 % of Flanders’ farmland is well suited for agrivoltaic
development, and that 9 % of farmland under AV would suffice to meet future energy targets in combination
with rooftop PV. After our analysis, 11.5 % of total agricultural land was classified as less suitable,
28.74 % as somewhat suitable, 19.40 % as suitable and 12.22 % as very suitable.
SIGNIFICANCE: Transitioning away from fossil fuels requires a multi-facetted approach. Agrivoltaic systems can
contribute to this shift, opening up additional land without significantly compromising farm revenue. This study
presents insights into the feasibility and geographic potential of agrivoltaic systems in densely populated regions
with intensive agriculture like Flanders and can serve as a base for future discussion regarding dual land use
planning decisions locally and abroad.
... This is because appropriately designed and deployed AVS projects have potential to enhance food security, improve food availability (Chopdar et al., 2024) and thus help reduce malnutrition, promote investment in agriculture, mitigate food price volatility. AVS can also help conserve biodiversity, native vegetation and pollinators by enabling farming and agricultural production even after the installation of solar panels (Bai et al., 2022;Schindele et al., 2020;Willockx et al., 2022). Because of these co-benefits we argue that all eight targets of SDG 2 have synergies with AVS. ...
Agrivoltaic systems (AVS)-wherein solar photovoltaic (PV) and commodity-based agriculture are co-located on the same land parcel-offer a sustainable approach to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by enabling concurrent renewable electricity and agri-food production. Here, we elucidate plausible co-benefits and trade-offs of agri-food production and electricity generation in AVS across manifold socio-enviro-economic contexts, with the aim of understanding contextualized interplay between AVS implementation and progress towards the SDGs. We modeled three AVS designs with varying solar panel densities (high, mid, low) at case study locations in Australia, Chad, and Iran using the System Advisor Model for PV and GrassGro for livestock systems. The findings suggest that in regions conducive to high biomass production per unit area, such as in Australia, AVS design with high solar panel density can reduce meat production by almost 50%, which can jeopardize food security and impede achieving SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). In these regions, AVS design with low solar panel density enables meeting SDGs aligned with agri-food production and renewable energy generation. In contrast, in semi-arid regions, such as Iran, AVS design with a high density of solar panels can improve agricultural production via the alleviation of water deficits, thereby supporting the prioritization of solar power generation, with food production as a co-benefit. In developing countries such as Chad, AVS can enhance economic development by providing electricity, food, and financial benefits. We call for policymakers to incentivize AVS deployment in such regions by attracting public and private investment to enable progress towards SDGs.
... The dynamic nature of sunlight angle throughout the day poses another layer of complexity. Variations in solar geometry influence the illumination conditions across agricultural landscapes, resulting in temporal fluctuations in spectral signatures (Willockx et al., 2022). This phenomenon underscores the importance of considering diurnal changes in lighting when acquiring and analyzing multispectral data to mitigate potential inaccuracies arising from differing illumination angles. ...
The utilization of multispectral imaging systems (MIS) in remote sensing has become crucial for large-scale agricultural operations, particularly for diagnosing plant health, monitoring crop growth, and estimating plant phenotypic traits through vegetation indices (VIs). However, environmental factors can significantly affect the accuracy of multispectral reflectance data, leading to potential errors in VIs and crop status assessments. This paper reviewed the complex interactions between environmental conditions and multispectral sensors emphasizing the importance of accounting for these factors to enhance the reliability of reflectance data in agricultural applications. An overview of the fundamentals of multispectral sensors and the operational principles behind vegetation index (VI) computation was reviewed. The review highlights the impact of environmental conditions, particularly solar zenith angle (SZA), on reflectance data quality. Higher SZA values increase cloud optical thickness and droplet concentration by 40-70%, affecting reflectance in the red (-0.01 to 0.02) and near-infrared (NIR) bands (-0.03 to 0.06), crucial for VI accuracy. An SZA of 45° is optimal for data collection, while atmospheric conditions, such as water vapor and aerosols, greatly influence reflectance data, affecting forest biomass estimates and agricultural assessments. During the COVID-19 lockdown, reduced atmospheric interference improved the accuracy of satellite image reflectance consistency. The NIR/Red edge ratio and water index emerged as the most stable indices, providing consistent measurements across different lighting conditions. Additionally, a simulated environment demonstrated that MIS surface reflectance can vary 10-20% with changes in aerosol optical thickness, 15-30% with water vapor levels, and up to 25% in NIR reflectance due to high wind speeds. Seasonal factors like temperature and humidity can cause up to a 15% change, highlighting the complexity of environmental impacts on remote sensing data. This review indicated the importance of precisely managing environmental factors to maintain the integrity of VIs calculations. Explaining the relationship between environmental variables and multispectral sensors offers valuable insights for optimizing the accuracy and reliability of remote sensing data in various agricultural applications.
... Vegetation development in these new ecosystems is conditioned by some characteristics of the solar facilities, such as the type of panels (fixed vs. tilting), the distance between panels (corridors width) and their height, as they determine the solar radiation incident on vegetation. A study carried out recently, highlights that a change in the orientation of the panels from the current N-S to SE or SW, would increase the light distribution at the ground level, which may produce notable improvements in the growth of crops, which receive more sun, without affecting energy production [46]. The alterations of the panels in air circulation are also dependent on the structure of the installations (width of corridors, height of trackers, etc.) and the climate in which they are located, so the effects this may have on vegetation are highly context dependent. ...
The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is fundamental to mitigate the effects of global climate change. Renewable power capacity is increasing globally, and solar photovoltaic will be the dominant renewable energy source by 2050. Photovoltaic parks require great extensions of land, usually in drylands. But both ecosystems created by solar parks and the effect of solar parks on ecosystems are scarcely studied. This paper reviews the current knowledge on the impact of solar energy production on arid and semiarid ecosystems and describes the structure and functioning of these novel ecosystems, including changes in microclimatic conditions, soil quality, vegetation, and biodiversity and show how these factors hinder the full recovery of ecosystems in the solar parks. Finally, we address the limitations and challenges of restoring ecosystems within photovoltaic power plants and suggest the use of modern ecological restoration techniques and the incorporation of grazing with rational planning to improve the ecosystems in photovoltaic power plants in drylands. In any case, more research is needed to fully understand the long-term impacts of photovoltaic parks on the environment and the evolution of the novel ecosystems in the photovoltaic power plants.
... In Figure 4, the LER of several European studies have been plotted (more information can be found in Table S2 of the supplementary information). Something similar has been pointed out in a study by Willockx et al. [88], where it has been estimated (theoretically) that in areas of Southern Europe, LER values higher than 2 are found. A trend towards a higher LER is observed in the Mediterranean area, perhaps associated with a higher number of daylight hours: more energy can be produced without sacrificing too much space or resources for agricultural production. ...
This review article focuses on agrivoltaic production systems (AV). The transition towards renewable energy sources, driven by the need to respond to climate change, competition for land use, and the scarcity of fossil fuels, has led to the consideration of new ways to optimise land use while producing clean energy. AV systems not only generate energy but also allow agricultural and livestock yields to be maintained or even increased under PV structures, offering a sustainable production strategy that may be more acceptable to local communities than traditional PV installations. This review assesses the technical feasibility of AV systems, the environmental, economic and social benefits, as well as the challenges faced and the legal framework regulating their implementation. It is highlighted that despite the advantages in land use efficiency and dual food and energy production, there are important challenges related to the initial investment required, the need for technological adaptation, social and regulatory obstacles, or the effects of shading on production. This paper underlines the importance of further research and development of these systems to overcome technical and economic constraints and maximise their potential benefits. It is concluded that although they present significant challenges, AV management offers promising opportunities to improve land efficiency and contribute to several sustainable development goals.
... For GPV systems, based on existing PV plants, we considered SCR as Ground Coverage Ratio (GCR) with a value of 55 %. For APV and APV-SIL systems, a lower GCR of 35 % was considered, accounting for increased light exposure to the crops beneath (Willockx et al., 2022). For FPV systems, SCR is used as the Water Coverage Ratio (WCR). ...
Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology stands out as a cornerstone in Bangladesh's journey towards achieving net-zero emissions, representing a crucial building block in the country's sustainable energy transition plan. However, rapid land use change and the lack of suitable land for developing PV pose significant barriers to achieving Bangladesh's renewable energy targets and decarbonisation goals towards a net-zero transition. Our analysis of the predevelopment land use state of ten existing solar PV plants in Bangladesh reveals a substantial use of scarce agricultural land for their establishment. Therefore, to identify pathways for overcoming the challenges, this study reassesses Bangladesh's geographic and technical potential for solar PV using geospatial modelling by considering local contexts. Our investigation encompasses Rooftop PV (RPV), Ground-mounted PV (GPV), Floating PV (FPV), and Agrivoltaic (APV) systems. To identify suitable areas and quantify potential, we employ a comprehensive exclusion model and system-specific suitability models using the QGIS platform. Utilising the latest spatial datasets, including footprint data comprising approximately 20 million buildings, a 10 metre (m) resolution land cover map, and bathymetry data, our study provides a robust analysis. The results of our models present a holistic view of Bangladesh's solar PV potential, estimating about 30 GWp for RPV, 9 GWp for GPV, 5 GWp for FPV, and 81 GWp for APV applications. Given the escalating urbanisation in Bangladesh, our findings recommend diversifying solar PV deployment with a focus on RPV and other PV systems that offer dual use of land to facilitate a smoother energy transition towards sustainable development.
