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The ‘e3’ infill building, Esmarchstrasse, Berlin, a 7-storey residential urban infill building with a concrete staircase tower; unfortunately, the building does not expose any timber.
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Prefabricated engineered solid wood panel construction systems can sequester and store CO2. Modular cross-laminated timber (CLT, also called cross-lam) panels form the basis of low-carbon, engineered construction systems using solid wood panels that can be used to build residential infill developments of 10 storeys or higher. Multi-apartment buildi...
Citations
... A recent successful approach to reducing the capital cost of PV racking for groundmounted systems is designs using wood [47,48]. In addition to substantial cost advantages in North America, wood is sustainable [49], renewable, and comprises approximately half carbon, so it can be thought of as a carbon sink [50]. As wood requires relatively low energy processing, it has a negative combined embodied energy and carbon relative alternative materials conventionally used for racking. ...
Solar powering the increasing fleet of electrical vehicles (EV) demands more surface area than may be available for photovoltaic (PV)-powered buildings. Parking lot solar canopies can provide the needed area to charge EVs but are substantially costlier than roof- or ground-mounted PV systems. To provide a low-cost PV parking lot canopy to supply EV charging, in this study, we provide a full mechanical and economic analysis of three novel PV canopy systems: (1) an exclusively wood, single-parking-spot spanning system, (2) a wood and aluminum double-parking-spot spanning system, and (3) a wood and aluminum cantilevered system for curbside parking. All three systems can be scaled to any amount of EV parking spots. The complete designs and bill of materials (BOM) of the canopies are provided, along with basic instructions, and are released with an open-source license that will enable anyone to fabricate them. Analysis results indicate that single-span systems provide cost savings of 82–85%, double-span systems save 43–50%, and cantilevered systems save 31–40%. In the first year of operation, PV canopies can provide 157% of the energy needed to charge the least efficient EV currently on the market if it is driven the average driving distance in London, ON, Canada.
... A recent successful approach to reducing the capital cost of PV racking for groundmounted systems is designs using wood [47,48]. In addition to substantial cost advantages in North America, wood is sustainable [49], renewable, and comprises approximately half carbon, so it can be thought of as a carbon sink [50]. As wood requires relatively low energy processing, it has a negative combined embodied energy and carbon relative alternative materials conventionally used for racking. ...
Solar powering the increasing fleet of electrical vehicles (EV) demands more surface area than may be available for photovoltaic (PV) powered buildings. Parking lot solar canopies can provide the needed area to charge EVs, but are substantially costlier than roof- or ground-mounted PV systems. To provide a lower-cost PV parking lot canopy to supply EV charging beneath them, this study provides a full mechanical and economic analysis on three novel PV canopy systems: (1) exclusively wood, single parking spot spanning system, (2) wood and aluminum double parking spot spanning system, and (3) wood and aluminum cantilevered system for curbside parking. All systems can be scalable to any amount of EV parking spots. The complete designs and bill of materials (BOM) of the canopies are provided along with basic instructions and are released with an open source license that will enable anyone to fabricate them. The results found single-span systems have cost savings of 82%-85%, double-span systems save 43%-50%, and cantilevered systems save 31%-40%. In the first operation year, the PV canopies can provide 157% of energy needed to charge the least efficient EV currently on the market if it is driven the average driving distance in London ON, Canada.
... In all likelihood, the growing interest in CLT as a construction material is attributed to a number of advantages associated with it, including but not limited to its low environmental impacts (particularly carbon footprint), high strength-to-weight ratio, ease of installation, and aesthetic features. With a focus on its sustainability attributes, CLT stores carbon during its service life, which in turn offers opportunities to make buildings into so-termed 'carbon sinks' [27,28]. This results in a reduced global warming potential (GWP) impact in the production stage of mass timber structures, compared to steel or concrete structures [29]. ...
The building industry is a large contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and a vast consumer of natural resources. It is estimated that, in the next 40 years, around 415 Gt of CO2 will be released as a result of global construction activities. Therefore, improvements in construction technologies are essential to reduce GHG emissions and thereby attain national and international goals to mitigate climate change. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) has emerged as an innovative alternative material to steel/concrete in building construction, given its relatively low carbon footprint, not to mention its high strength-to-weight ratio, simple installation, and aesthetic features. CLT is a structural composite panel product developed in the early 1990s, and the contemporary generation of CLT buildings are yet to reach the end of their service life. Accordingly, there has been growing interest to understand and optimize the performance of CLT in building construction. In view of that, this paper presents an overview on the feasibility of using CLT in buildings from a life-cycle assessment (LCA) standpoint. The authors performed a brief review on LCA studies conducted in the past decade pertaining to the carbon footprint of CLT buildings. On average, the findings of these studies revealed about 40% reduction in carbon footprint when using CLT in lieu of conventional construction materials (steel/concrete) for multi-story buildings. Furthermore, the paper explores the challenges associated with conducting LCA on CLT buildings, identifies the gaps in knowledge, and outlines directions for future research.
... One approach to overcoming this challenge is to start with a small do-it-yourself (DIY) [23] or use plug-and-play solar, where PV modules are connected through microinverters directly to the household circuits by consumers. sourced wood has the advantage of being sustainable [38], renewable, and comprised of approximately half carbon, which was recently taken from the atmosphere. When combined with lower energy needs for processing, wood actually has a negative combined embodied energy and carbon over alternative racking construction materials. ...
Although small solar photovoltaic (PV) systems avoid most soft costs, they still have a relatively high $/W value due to racking costs. In order to fulfill the promise of small-scale plug-and-play solar, a do-it-yourself PV rack design is provided and analyzed here for six criteria: (1) made from locally-accessible renewable materials, (2) 25-year lifetime to match PV warranties, (3) able to be fabricated by average consumers, (4) able to meet Canadian structural building codes, (5) low cost and (6) that it is shared using an open-source license. The open-source wood-based fixed-tilt ground-mounted bifacial photovoltaic rack design evaluated here was found to be appropriate throughout North America. Economic analysis of the bill of materials showed the racking system ranges from 49% to 77% less expensive compared to commercial proprietary racking in Canada. The racking design, however, is highly dependent on the cost of lumber that varies widely throughout the world. Even for an absolute lower-cost design in Togo due to a lower fixed tilt angle and lower loads from lack of snow, it was not found to be economic because of the relatively high cost of wood. The recent volatile lumber market warrants local evaluation from those considering the use of the open-source design. This design, however, provides for a PV rack that can be manufactured with distributed means throughout most of the world enabling more equitable access to solar energy to support a circular bioeconomy.
... The Lattke and Lehmann paper from 2007 [31] focuses on technical aspects of timber usage for multi-storey residential buildings in Europe. Lehmann's later 2012 paper [32] examines the viability of MTSBs in Australia through eight case studies from a technical and regulatory framework perspective. In 2014, the Perkins and Will office published a report by Hold and Wardle on timber buildings [33]. ...
Throughout the last two decades the timber building sector has experienced a steady growth in multi-storey construction. Although there has been a growing number of research focused on trends, benefits, and disadvantages in timber construction from various technical perspectives, so far there is no extensive literature on the trajectory of emerging architectural typologies. This paper presents an examination of architectural variety and spatial possibilities in current serial and modular multi-storey timber construction. It aims to draw a parallel between architectural characteristics and their relation to structural systems in timber. The research draws from a collection of 350 contemporary multi-storey timber building projects between 2000 and 2021. It consists of 300 built projects, 12 projects currently in construction, and 38 design proposals. The survey consists of quantitative and qualitative project data, as well as classification of the structural system, material, program, massing, and spatial organization of the projects. It then compares the different structural and design aspects to achieve a comprehensive overview of possibilities in timber construction. The outcome is an identification of the range of morphologies and a better understanding of the design space in current serial and modular multi-storey mass timber construction.
... Prefabricated parts are delivered readymade, so there is no need to consider the weather conditions during their manufacture [31]. In recent years, prefabricated construction is increasingly used worldwide because it meets the parameters of economical, sustainable, technologically optimized, time-saving and aesthetically very acceptable construction [32][33][34][35]. ...
The paper presents the results of the first phase of the student project CROSTAND2, whose main goal is to revitalize the traditional construction techniques of vernacular architecture in the Republic of Croatia by developing modern sustainable prefabricated modular wooden buildings/public booths in accordance with users’ needs and habits. To incorporate conceptual design, the literature on Croatian construction and wood protection, prefabricated modular construction, and public urban spaces was analyzed and field research was conducted. Photo documentation was also collected in the village of Donja Kupčina, Zagreb County, Croatia. An online survey questionnaire on socializing habits in public spaces, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, additionally analyzed new requirements for user-centered design. The obtained results, as well as results from previous project research, were used as a basis and inspiration for the design of a conceptual modular building inspired by traditional wooden joints, modular construction, and the emerging needs of users to socialize safely in a healthy environment. Conceptual solutions for a sustainable modular prefabricated wooden building for public use, intended for public urban and rural areas, have been proposed. Such constructions would ensure the sustainability of enjoying the natural environment for personal, tourist, and commercial purposes with the perpetuation of Croatian heritage building traditions.
... Developers may have the largest influence in determining if CLT construction will be used, and they are usually the largest beneficiary of successful CLT construction projects (Roos et al. 2010). When buildings are erected faster the developers experience a quicker return on investment (Lehmann 2012). General contractors have limited input on construction design and materials, but their familiarity and experience using CLT construction materials may have some influence on the material product decisions (O'Conner et al. 2004). ...
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) is an engineered wood product for the construction industry offering multiple structural, environmental and supply chain benefits. CLT can be used for an entire building, as both the lateral and vertical load resisting system, or for select elements such as the roof, floors or walls. CLT products were developed in the early 1990’s and have been widely adopted throughout Europe, and more recently, in Canada. However, use of CLT products is still relatively rare in the US. We present the results of a nationwide phone survey in the US conducted with architects and structural engineers to gauge their awareness, rate of adoption and assimilation of CLT products. Although adoption of CLT amongst architects and structural engineers is still at a nascent level within the construction sector, awareness is high, with 100% of our sample respondents cognizant of CLT. Architects and structural engineers perceive relative advantages of using CLT as well as compatibility with traditional construction. However, the adoption process is impeded by issues associated with complexity, trialability and observability. Key barriers to adoption of CLT as perceived by these two stakeholders are lack of experience from construction stakeholders, lack of training and tools for construction management stakeholders, lack of client requests and CLT inventory.
... The reasons for this will be explained in subsequent chapters. (Lattke and Lehmann, 2007) (Mahapatra and Gustavsson, 2008) (Lehmann, 2012) (Riala and Ilola, 2014) (Gosselin et al., 2015) (Ruuska and Häkkinen, 2016) (Zumbrunnen, 2017) (Kuzman and Sandberg, 2017) (Markström et al., 2019) Multi-storey timber-frame construction (Kairi, 2005) (Nord et al., 2011) (Xia et al., 2014) Wooden (or Wood-based) multistory building (or construction) (Mahapatra and Gustavsson, 2009) (Eliasson and Thörnqvist, 2010) (Östman and Källsner, 2011) (Mikkola, 2014) (Anttonen, 2015) (Federation of the Finnish Woodworking Industries, 2019) Wood-frame multi-story construction (WMC) (Gustavsson et al., 2006) (Mahapatra et al., 2012) (Hurmekoski et al., 2015) (Hurmekoski et al., 2018) (Vihemäki et al., 2019) (Lazarevic et al., 2020) Tall Wood (-en) (Green and Karsh, 2012) (Salvadori, 2017) ( Green and Taggart, 2017) (Wiegand, 2019) Tall Timber (Foster et al., 2017) (Kuzmanovska et al., 2018) (Landel, 2018) ...
... Alongside this literature, some papers were published in which several MTBs were analysed and compared (Lattke and Lehmann, 2007) (Lehmann, 2012) (Gosselin et al., 2015) ( Hurmekoski et al., 2015). However, excluding Lehmann (2012), none of the studies were considered surveys, but were rather used to gather qualitative information on the case-studies described. ...
... Alongside this literature, some papers were published in which several MTBs were analysed and compared (Lattke and Lehmann, 2007) (Lehmann, 2012) (Gosselin et al., 2015) ( Hurmekoski et al., 2015). However, excluding Lehmann (2012), none of the studies were considered surveys, but were rather used to gather qualitative information on the case-studies described. ...
Since the early 2000s, there has been a steady and heterogeneous proliferation throughout several western countries of multi-story timber-based buildings. This thesis confirms that since the first five-storey building was realised in 2004, at least 196 others were built until 2019. With many of these case-studies having been researched for the first time, the goal of this dissertation is to categorize the different international approaches and to define what are the drivers which had an effect on the design.
Because the research topic is a recent development in academia, this thesis defines what multi-storey timber-based buildings actually are, and, after the discussion of existing literature, proceeds with the selection of the case-studies according to defined height and structural criteria. With the complete list of the buildings, the thesis first analyses the design characteristics of all case-studies, in order to research how these projects were built. The analysis includes thirty-two structural categories in which each case-study is classified and described. The analysis was able to show that there are many design differences between the countries involved. Some clusters of solutions can also be identified.
The purpose of the second step was to understand by who and why these buildings have been built. In order to answer these questions, the thesis proceeds with each country's contextual analysis. Regulatory framework in place at the time of the project are described, but the focus is given on the stakeholders and R&D concepts involved in the realisation of the selected case-studies. Furthermore, the declared reasons for choosing a timber structure, along with the public and private typology of the commission were also researched. The contextual analysis shows, as the literature confirms, that the legal framework often sets the necessary rules for building multi-story timber-based buildings. However, the role played by the stakeholders is not secondary, and there are clear patterns of interdependence between many case-studies and the professionals involved in their construction. While private clients are often the actual drivers behind the majority of the cases, there are several countries in which the leading role is played by public initiatives. In some cases, the intrinsic properties of timber played a decisive role in the choice of the clients.
This dissertation adds further valuable information regarding the constructive and contextual characteristics of multi-story timber-based buildings built over the last fifteen years, in order to show the differences and commonalities between each country involved.
Multi-storey timber-based buildings are a complex phenomenon, which really depend on the nation in which they were built. At the same time, it was possible to identify international trends in their design, and major players which considerably influenced the design solutions and realisations of these buildings.
... The Lattke and Lehmann paper published in 2007 [1], focuses on technical aspects and on recent case-studies regarding the use of timber as a multi-frame for multi-level residential buildings in Europe. Some years later, Lehmann´s research [5] published a paper which included a list of 8 case-studies which were described technically and under a regulatory framework perspective. One of the first global studies was published by Perkins+Will in 2014 [6], which summarized the findings of 10 built case-studies. ...
Since the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a steady and heterogeneous proliferation throughout the world of multi-storey timber-based buildings. Although there have been several types of research with the goal of shedding light on the differences and commonalities of the built projects, the emphasis of most of the existing literature has been mainly on well-known cases and not on a wider group of buildings. A comprehensive worldwide analysis from a structural point of view of more than 49 buildings does not yet exist. This research collects 197 built multi-storey timber-based buildings from 5 to 24-storeys in the period of time between 2004 and 2019. The goal is to show the structural differences of the analysed buildings based on their geographical region. This paper is an excerpt of the author's dissertation on a broader topic related to multi-storey timber-based buildings. The research presented in this paper is the first step in the definition of a global database for multi-storey timber-based buildings. It will also aid further analysis from a more detailed structural and architectural point of view.
... In the quality system, the selection of suppliers is mainly concerned with the quality of products. In addition to controlling the qualified rate, the manufacturing process and inspection stage should also be considered [25]. In the investigation of suppliers, factors regarding the products return should also be analyzed [26]. ...
... Therefore, in the investigation and evaluation of supplier quality system, we should comprehensively consider the product qualification rate, return rate, quality management level, and other indicators [25]. In case of any abnormality in the sample data, the supervision and analysis of the product delivery should be carried out. ...
Prefabricated building is an efficient building mode. Compared with the traditional building mode, the prefabricated building has advantages of less pollution, high construction efficiency, being more labor-saving, and economy, which is in line with China’s sustainable development strategy. This paper proposes a supplier selection evaluation model based on the mechanism equation model (SEM) and intuitionistic fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (IFAHP). Based on a detailed literature review, 300 structured questionnaires were distributed to the relevant enterprises, and an evaluation index system of prefabricated building element suppliers was built. With the fitting and modification process using a structural equation model, and assist of a path factor, an evaluation index system for evaluating the prefabricated building element suppliers was finally obtained. Finally, the intuitionistic fuzzy analytic hierarchy process was used to establish a selection model of prefabricated element suppliers, and the prefabricated element suppliers of Shuangyashan prefabricated construction projects were analyzed as a case study. The results show that the following factors have the most significant impact on supplier selection (from high to low): quality, economy, long-term cooperation, after-sales, and transportation. This study had a comprehensive consideration of the influencing factors existing in the whole selection process and should provide a valuable reference for the sustainable development of prefabricated construction engineering.
