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The different types of cancer vaccines

The different types of cancer vaccines

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Abstract The recent developments in immuno-oncology have opened an unprecedented avenue for the emergence of vaccine strategies. Therapeutic DNA cancer vaccines are now considered a very promising strategy to activate the immune system against cancer. In the past, several clinical trials using plasmid DNA vaccines demonstrated a good safety profile...

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... to elicit an immune response to arrest the progression of cancer and prevent it from recurring [16]. These include cell-based vaccines, such as dendritic cell vaccines (e.g., Sipuleucel) [17] or whole tumor cells, protein/peptide vaccines [18], viral/bacterial-based vaccines [19,20] and gene-based vaccines, including RNA and DNA vaccines [7,21] (Fig. ...

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... These trials are also evaluating various types of vaccines, including DC-based vaccines, DNA vaccines, RNA vaccines, and viral vaccine vectors. The clinical trials are primarily in phase I and II, aiming to assess the safety and efficacy of these vaccine approaches [87]. A summary of clinical trials of immunotherapy in CRC is presented in Table 4. ...
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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is ranked as the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally, necessitating urgent advancements in therapeutic approaches. The emergence of groundbreaking therapies, including chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell therapies, oncolytic viruses, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, marks a transformative era in oncology. These innovative modalities, tailored to individual genetic and molecular profiles, hold the promise of significantly enhancing patient outcomes. This comprehensive review explores the latest clinical trials and advancements, encompassing targeted molecular therapies, immunomodulatory agents, and cell-based therapies. By evaluating the strengths, limitations, and potential synergies of these approaches, this research aims to reshape the treatment landscape and improve clinical outcomes for CRC patients, offering new found hope for those who have exhausted conventional options. The culmination of this work is anticipated to pave the way for transformative clinical trials, ushering in a new era of personalized and effective CRC therapy.
... Antigenic epitopes were determined by bioinformatics, MHC-peptide binding assays, and ELISOPT methods [135]. Based on these findings, plasmid DNA vaccines that encode multiple neoantigens have been constructed and administered to individual patients [136]. ...
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Nucleic acid vaccines have emerged as crucial advancements in vaccine technology, particularly highlighted by the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The widespread administration of mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 to billions globally marks a significant milestone. Furthermore, the approval of an mRNA vaccine for Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) this year underscores the versatility of this technology. In oncology, the combination of mRNA vaccine encoding neoantigens and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has shown remarkable efficacy in eliciting protective responses against diseases like melanoma and pancreatic cancer. Although the use of a COVID-19 DNA vaccine has been limited to India, the inherent stability at room temperature and cost-effectiveness of DNA vaccines present a viable option that could benefit developing countries. These advantages may help DNA vaccines address some of the challenges associated with mRNA vaccines. Currently, several trials are exploring the use of DNA-encoded neoantigens in combination with ICIs across various cancer types. These studies highlight the promising role of nucleic acid-based vaccines as the next generation of immunotherapeutic agents in cancer treatment. This review will delve into the recent advancements and current developmental status of both mRNA and DNA-based cancer vaccines.
... This principle can be useful in treating many disorders including allergies, autoimmune disorders, genetic disorders, and malignancies. The recent progress in recombinant DNA technology paved the way for the development of DNA vaccines, such that the plasmid DNA can contain any desired combination of genetic information; from viral genes to various cancer genes (18). The advances in whole-genome sequencing have enabled us to analyze the entire genome of tumor cells and detect thousands of TSAs, the results of which can be utilized to tailor cancer treatment for each patient. ...
... One of the most important advantages of DNA cancer vaccines is the possibility of flexible design of plasmids with multiple tumor antigens and incorporation of immunomodulatory genes (such as interleukins including IL-1 or GM-CSF and Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists) (18). The innate ability of bacterial plasmid to stimulate the immune system can also be exploited in this method as several DNA sensing molecules in the cytoplasm of immune cells are activated following the plasmid transfection which will in turn augment the activation of the innate immune system (38). ...
... Another issue is the high production time required for personal vaccine development, a time most cancer patients do not have. Most of this time is spent on finding and prioritizing tumor antigens (18). What can we do about it? ...
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Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality around the world and most of our conventional treatments are not efficient enough to combat this deadly disease. Harnessing the power of the immune system to target cancer cells is one of the most appealing methods for cancer therapy. Nucleotide-based cancer vaccines, especially deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) cancer vaccines are viable novel cancer treatments that have recently garnered significant attention. DNA cancer vaccines are made of plasmid molecules that encode tumor-associated or tumor-specific antigens (TAAs or TSAs), and possibly some other immunomodulatory adjuvants such as pro-inflammatory interleukins. Following the internalization of plasmids into cells, their genes are expressed and the tumor antigens are loaded on major histocompatibility molecules to be presented to T-cells. After the T-cells have been activated, they will look for tumor antigens and destroy the tumor cells upon encountering them. As with any other treatment, there are pros and cons associated with using these vaccines. They are relatively safe, usually well-tolerated, stable, easily mass-produced, cost-effective, and easily stored and transported. They can induce a systemic immune response effective on both the primary tumor and metastases. The main disadvantage of DNA vaccines is their poor immunogenicity. Several approaches including structural modification, combination therapy with conventional and novel cancer treatments (such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint blockade (ICB)), and the incorporation of adjuvants into the plasmid structure have been studied to enhance the vaccine’s immunogenicity and improve the clinical outcome of cancer patients. In this review, we will discuss some of the most promising optimization strategies and examine some of the important trials regarding these vaccines.
... However, they exhibit lower immunogenicity, and viral vectors (e.g., adenoviruses) are often utilized to enhance DNA transfection efficiency into the nucleus. This reliance on delivery vectors raises concerns regarding potential safety issues, such as vector-mediated genotoxicity, as well as the risk of genetic mutations [96,98]. INO-5401 is an example of a synthetic DNA cancer vaccine encoding a variety of cancer antigens such as human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT), WT1, and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA). ...
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Cancer vaccines, crucial in the immunotherapeutic landscape, are bifurcated into preventive and therapeutic types, both integral to combating oncogenesis. Preventive cancer vaccines, like those against HPV and HBV, reduce the incidence of virus-associated cancers, while therapeutic cancer vaccines aim to activate dendritic cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes for durable anti-tumor immunity. Recent advancements in vaccine platforms, such as synthetic peptides, mRNA, DNA, cellular, and nano-vaccines, have enhanced antigen presentation and immune activation. Despite the US Food and Drug Administration approval for several vaccines, the full therapeutic potential remains unrealized due to challenges such as antigen selection, tumor-mediated immunosuppression, and optimization of delivery systems. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the aims and implications of preventive and therapeutic cancer vaccine, the innovative discovery of neoantigens enhancing vaccine specificity, and the latest strides in vaccine delivery platforms. It also critically evaluates the role of adjuvants in enhancing immunogenicity and mitigating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The review further examines the synergistic potential of combining cancer vaccines with other therapies, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, to improve therapeutic outcomes. Overcoming barriers such as effective antigen identification, immunosuppressive microenvironments, and adverse effects is critical for advancing vaccine development. By addressing these challenges, cancer vaccines can offer significant improvements in patient outcomes and broaden the scope of personalized cancer immunotherapy.
... Similarly, the importance of ORF design in mRNA vaccines is paramount owing to its direct influences on the production of the target antigen. During the optimization of CDS, the first issue should be concerned is about the codon preference, which means the optimal codons can be used more frequently than the rare codons [83]. Therefore, one common strategy is to use optimal codons (e.g. ...
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Immuno-oncology has witnessed remarkable advancements in the past decade, revolutionizing the landscape of cancer therapeutics in an encouraging manner. Among the diverse immunotherapy strategies, mRNA vaccines have ushered in a new era for the therapeutic management of malignant diseases, primarily due to their impressive impact on the COVID-19 pandemic. In this comprehensive review, we offer a systematic overview of mRNA vaccines, focusing on the optimization of structural design, the crucial role of delivery materials, and the administration route. Additionally, we summarize preclinical studies and clinical trials to provide valuable insights into the current status of mRNA vaccines in cancer treatment. Furthermore, we delve into a systematic discussion on the significant challenges facing the current development of mRNA tumor vaccines. These challenges encompass both intrinsic and external factors that are closely intertwined with the successful application of this innovative approach. To pave the way for a more promising future in cancer treatments, a deeper understanding of immunological mechanisms, an increasing number of high-quality clinical trials, and a well-established manufacturing platform are crucial. Collaborative efforts between scientists, clinicians, and industry engineers are essential to achieving these goals.
... Recombinant proteins and peptides have been commonly used as traditional subunit vaccines, but now plasmid DNA-based cancer vaccines are being recognized as feasible alternatives. Nevertheless, their limited potency remains a significant challenge in DNA vaccination (Arbyn et al. 2011;Lopes et al. 2019). Preclinical studies utilizing Gene Electro-Transfer (GET) have demonstrated the positive effects of mHyals, resulting in increased transfected cells and enhanced expression of encoded genes (Peri et al. 2020). ...
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Hyaluronan (HA), a natural high molecular weight polysaccharide, has extensive applications in cosmetology and medical treatment. Hyaluronan-degrading enzymes (Hyals) act as molecular scissors that cleave HA by breaking the glucosidic linkage. Hyals are present in diverse organisms, including vertebrates, invertebrates and microorganisms, and play momentous roles in biological processes. In recent years, microbial Hyals (mHyals) have gained considerable attention for their exceptional performance in the production and processing of HA. Moreover, the applications of mHyals have been greatly extended to various biomedical fields. To explore the potential applications of mHyals, a thorough comprehension is imperative. In this context, this review systematically summarizes the sources, structures, mechanisms and enzymatic properties of mHyals and discusses their biological functions in host invasion, disease development, and regulation of intestinal flora. Furthermore, versatile applications inspired by their biological functions in medicine development, molecular biology, and industrial biotechnology are comprehensively reviewed. Finally, prospects are presented to emphasize the importance of exploration, expression and characterization of mHyals and the necessity of excavating their potential in biotechnological fields. Graphical abstract
... Remarkably, tumor-associated proteins (TAPs), exhibiting abnormal expression patterns within tumor tissues, occupy central stages in initiating, advancing, and disseminating tumor growth. Following the seminal identification of the pioneering tumor antigen, MAGE, in melanoma during 1991, there has been a proliferation in the discovery of a myriad of additional TAPs [1]. The rationale underlying therapeutic vaccines rests on the premise that cancer cells harbor unique chemicals, termed tumor-specific antigens, absent or minimally present in healthy cells. ...
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Immunotherapy, a truly innovative method in the field of cancer treatment, has attracted a great deal of attention because of its potential to bring about a revolution in the outcomes of cancer therapies. Even though there are many different ways being studied to make immunotherapy even more effective, fully realizing its potential, especially when it comes to cancer vaccines, is still a difficult goal to achieve. This review goes into detail about the different types of cancer vaccines, explaining the basic biological processes behind them and how they work with the immune system to fight cancer. We divide cancer vaccines into three main groups: virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, peptide vaccines, and DNA/mRNA vaccines. Furthermore, this review also covers how these vaccines are being used in a wide range of infectious diseases and cancer types, emphasizing their versatility and the potential positive effects they can have on patients. Additionally, important topics related to the future of cancer vaccination are discussed, such as new ways to store vaccines to keep them effective, ways to reduce safety concerns, and the creation of personalized vaccines that are tailored to each patient's specific needs and cancer characteristics. By facing these challenges head-on and embracing the latest technologies, we hope to fully unlock the power of cancer vaccines, pushing the boundaries of cancer immunotherapy even further.
... The validation of the safety characteristics of DNA vaccines has been among of the most significant advancements. The payoff has increased confidence in their use and has prompted further investigation into their effectiveness for use in preventive and therapeutic settings (Lopes et al., 2019;Singh et al., 2024;Dwivedi et al., 2024). ...
... These vaccines are derived from autologous tumor tissues or heterologous modified tumor cell lines, yet they may have limitations like dilution of TSAs in a pool of antigens with similar expression in normal and tumor cells [38,51]. In the content of nucleic acid-based cancer vaccines, DNA and messenger RNA (mRNA) sequences that encode antigenic tumor peptides/proteins are used [58]. By increasing the quantity and diversity of identified tumor antigens, nucleic acidbased cancer vaccines have attracted an increasing attention [59]. ...
Article
The field of cancer immunotherapy has experienced remarkable advancements in the treatment of human cancers over recent decades. Therapeutic cancer vaccines have been employed to elicit antitumor immune responses through the generation of specific reactions against tumor-associated antigens. Although preclinical studies have demonstrated hopeful results and at least one product is approved for clinical use, the overall efficacy of cancer vaccines remains restricted. The co-administration of anti-checkpoint antibodies alongside cancer vaccines is proposed as a potential strategy to enhance the clinical efficacy of immunotherapies. Among the various anti-checkpoint agents, monoclonal antibodies targeting CD127, OX40, and CD40 have been further investigated in combined administration with cancer vaccines, demonstrating a synergistic impact on disease outcomes in both animal models and human subjects. This combinational approach has been shown to suppress tumor regression, improve survival rates, and promote the efficacy of cancer vaccines via multiple mechanisms, including the augmentation of generation, activation, and expansion of CD8+ T cells, as well as the production of tumor-inhibitory cytokines. Importantly, the impact of the concurrent administration of anti-checkpoint agents and cancer vaccines surpass those observed with the sole vaccine, indicating that this strategy may offer significant advantages for clinical application in cancer patients. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the significance and therapeutic potential of the combined administration of checkpoint agonist/antagonist antibodies and cancer vaccines for human tumors.
... The primary benefits of nucleic acid vaccines encompass their design flexibility, capacity to induce a wide range of immune responses, and favorable safety and stability profiles. Preliminary research has demonstrated their efficacy in enhancing immune responses, particularly in relation to tumor-specific CD8+ T cells [45]. ...
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Prostate cancer is a prevalent cancer in elderly men, and immunotherapy has emerged as a promising treatment approach in recent years. The aim of immunotherapy is to stimulate the body’s immune system to target and destroy cancer cells. Cancer vaccines that are highly specific, safe, and capable of creating long-lasting immune responses are a key focus in cancer immunotherapy research. Despite progress in clinical trials showing positive results, the practical use of cancer vaccines still encounters various obstacles. The complexity of the immune microenvironment and variations in the immune systems of individual patients have hindered the progress of research on prostate cancer vaccines. This review examines the history and mechanisms of cancer vaccines, summarizes recent clinical research findings, and explores future directions in the development of prostate cancer vaccines.