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Much of Africa comprises arid regions, yet little is known about the ecological interactions between large carnivores in these landscapes. A review of the densities, feeding and foraging ecology, as well as the relations between the large carnivores in the arid Kalahari, illustrates how they have successfully adapted to arid conditions, and highlig...
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Context 1
... due to its exception- ally high metabolic demands (Gorman, Mills, Raath & Speakman, 1998), and selective hunting behaviour (Davies-Mostert, Mills & Macdonald, 2013), the prey base may not be sufficient to sus- tain a resident population. Table 3 summarizes the diets of the five species in the KTP, showing those species that make up 5% or more of their food. The two hyaena species differ markedly in diet. ...
Context 2
... but on which it relies heavily for food. The cats make up for their limited mobility by being able to catch a larger range of prey (Table 3). Additionally, cats typically hunt by stealth, employing a sit and wait or ambush foraging strategy, followed by a stalk and short chase (Macdonald, Loveridge & Nowell, 2010), whereas the spotted hyaena follows a widely foraging and cursorial hunting strategy of running down prey over quite long distances (Mills, 1990). ...
Citations
... Concerning interspecific competition, the only carnivorans that coexist with spotted hyaenas and can confront their clans are lions. In fact, lions frequently kill hyaenas over prey and under many other circumstances (Hayssen and Noonan, 2021;Kruuk, 1972, Mills, 2015. However, lions as almost all felids, hunt and attack using their forefeet and their strong arms, whereas their jaws and teeth, which could potentially have made the punctures, are used almost exclusively for strangling the prey by grabbing onto their necks and biting down onto the trachea (e.g., Haas et al., 2005;Sunquist andSunquist, 2002, Turner, 1997). ...
... of site-specific carnivore densities is also important because low densities result in the rarity of encounters, which may make temporal avoidance negligible (Mills, 2015;Müller et al., 2022;Romero-Muñoz et al., 2010). As the densities of the species increase, so will the number of encounters between them (Creel et al., 2001). ...
... For example, brown hyaenas are scavenging specialists and are facilitated by the presence of larger carnivores, such as lions, as they benefit from eating the remains of their kills (Mills, 2015). ...
Abstract Carnivora occupy many ecological niches fundamental to ecosystem functioning. Within this diverse order, carnivore species compete to establish dominance, ensure survival and maintain fitness. Subordinate carnivores must, therefore, adapt their behaviour to coexist with dominant species. One such strategy is the partitioning of temporal activity patterns. We aim to determine interspecific avoidance patterns among sympatric carnivores by examining coexistence along a temporal axis. We compared the temporal activity patterns of 13 carnivore species using multi‐seasonal camera trapping data from four protected areas across South Africa: Associated Private Nature Reserves, Madikwe Game Reserve, Mountain Zebra National Park and Tswalu Kalahari Reserve. Interspecific coefficients of overlap in diel and core activity periods were calculated over the study period and during the wet and dry seasons. Furthermore, interspecific spatiotemporal behaviour was examined using time‐to‐event analyses. Our results showed that complete avoidance of diel activity patterns was rare among South African carnivore species. Most species were predominantly nocturnal and, therefore, diel activity overlap was high, whereas core activity overlap was significantly lower (p
... Brown hyenas and spotted hyenas have previously been found to have a high temporal overlap (Vissia, Wadhwa & van Langevelde, 2021), which is also seen in our study. This overlap in activity could possibly be explained by a dietary partitioning where brown hyenas are known to mainly scavenge whereas spotted hyenas are known to also hunt and kill their own prey (Stein, Fuller & Marker, 2013;Yarnell et al., 2013;Mills, 2015). ...
Temporal partitioning in large carnivores have previously been found to be one of the main factors enabling coexistence. While activity patterns have been investigated separately at artificial waterholes and e.g., game trails, simultaneous comparative analyses of activity patterns at artificial waterholes and game trails have not been attempted. In this study, camera trap data from Maremani Nature Reserve was used to investigate whether temporal partitioning existed in a carnivore guild of four species (spotted hyena, leopard, brown hyena and African wild dog). Specifically, we investigated temporal partitioning at artificial waterholes and on roads and trails an average of 1,412 m away from an artificial waterhole. Activity patterns for the same species at artificial waterholes and roads/game trails were also compared. We found no significant differences in temporal activity between species at artificial waterholes. Temporal partitioning on game trails and roads was only found between spotted hyena (nocturnal) and African wild dog (crepuscular). Between nocturnal species (spotted hyena and leopard) no temporal partitioning was exhibited. Only African wild dog exhibited significantly different activity patterns at waterholes and roads/ game trails. This indicates artificial waterholes may be a location for conflict in a carnivore guild. Our study highlights the impact of anthropogenic landscape changes and management decisions on the temporal axis of carnivores. More data on activity patterns at natural water sources such as ephemeral pans are needed to properly assess the effect of artificial waterholes on temporal partitioning in a carnivore guild.
... Concerning interspecific competition, the only carnivorans that coexist with spotted hyaenas and can confront their clans are lions. In fact, lions frequently kill hyaenas over prey and under many other circumstances (Hayssen and Noonan, 2021;Kruuk, 1972, Mills, 2015. However, lions as almost all felids, hunt and attack using their forefeet and their strong arms, whereas their jaws and teeth, which could potentially have made the punctures, are used almost exclusively for strangling the prey by grabbing onto their necks and biting down onto the trachea (e.g., Haas et al., 2005;Sunquist andSunquist, 2002, Turner, 1997). ...
... Prey choice depends on prey abundance, presence of competitors, and cheetah's sex 19 . Male coalitions are able to kill larger preys 20 , solitary females usually hunt smaller preys 13,21 , but when they have dependent cubs, they may take larger prey items 22 . In Iran, a few regional studies assessing cheetah's diet reported jebeer (Gazella bennettii), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), mouflon (Ovis vignei), ibex (Capra aegagrus), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and livestock (sheep, goat and dromedary) as main prey items [23][24][25][26] . ...
Knowledge on diet composition allows defining well-targeted conservation measures of large carnivores. Little is known about ecology of critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, especially the overall diet and its possible regional differences. We used cheetah scats, metabarcoding technique and microsatellite markers to assess the individual and overall diet composition of the species across its entire range in Asia. Cheetahs were primarily predating on mouflon; following by ibex, cape hare and goitered gazelle. Despite their high availability, small-sized livestock was never detected. Goitered gazelles were only detected in an area where the habitat is mainly flatlands. In hilly areas, mouflon was the most frequent prey item taken. Ibex was typically taken in rugged terrain, but mouflon was still the most frequently consumed item in these habitats. High consumption of mouflon in comparison to goitered gazelle suggests that human pressure on lowland habitats has possibly forced Asiatic cheetahs to occupy suboptimal habitats where gazelles are less abundant. The protection of flatlands and the removal of livestock from them are needed to ensure the long-term survival of Asiatic cheetah. The laboratory and bioinformatics pipelines used in this study are replicable and can be used to address similar questions in other threatened carnivores.
... Brown hyaenas are found across a range of habitat types including savanna, scrubland, grassland, wetlands, desert and coasts (Wiesel 2015) and have been found to be flexible within their habitat use at a landscape scale (Welch et al. 2016). Depending on the area, brown hyaenas may be considered apex predators, for example on the coastline of southern Namibia (Wiesel 2010), or as a subordinate competitor to lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas in areas with an intact carnivore guild (Mills 2015). ...
Successfully conserving large carnivores requires an in-depth understanding of their habitat requirements. Ideally this includes a knowledge of the habitat types and features used as resting sites. Resting sites are an important requirement for many species, as they have the potential to influence species distribution and density. We examined the daytime resting sites used by brown hyaenas, a large carnivore endemic to southern Africa and classed as Near Threatened by the IUCN, within an enclosed reserve in north-central Namibia. Using historical spatial data from GPS collars we analysed 1 582 resting sites from nine adult brown hyaenas and classified them according to their location relative to the home range of each hyaena. We also visited a randomly chosen subset (n = 123) of these resting sites in the field and recorded habitat types and microhabitat features for each. Our results showed that brown hyaenas most frequently rested within the core area of their home range, most frequently in riverine habitat, followed by bush encroached habitat, and most frequently used microhabitat under a tree or bush. The fact that bush encroached habitat is being frequently used for resting is an important consideration for brown hyaena conservation. Bush encroached areas are often cleared by debushing projects in Namibia and the practice may negatively impact brown hyaenas.
... The effects of dominant large carnivores on subordinate competitors are especially seen in Africa relative to most other parts of the world due to the rich, intact carnivore guild (Caro & Stoner, 2003). African large carnivore communities are typically characterized by the competitive dominance of spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta and lion Panthera leo (Mills, 2015). This competitive dominance affects the distribution and behavior of subordinate species when present, such as wild dog Lycaon pictus (Saleni et al., 2007;Dr€ oge et al., 2017), cheetah Acenonyx jubatus (Hayward & Slotow, 2009;Droge et al., 2017), brown hyena Parahyaena brunnea (Mills, 1984;Hofer & Mills, 1998) and to a lesser extent leopard Panthera pardus (Balme et al., 2017;but see Ramesh et al, 2017;Comley et al., 2020). ...
... Brown hyena are thought to compete with spotted hyena as both exploit shared resources (Mills, 1984;Mills & Funston, 2003;Yarnell et al., 2013). However, brown hyena rely on larger carnivores to kill larger prey species (Stein, Fuller & Marker, 2013;Yarnell et al., 2013;Mills, 2015) as scavenging could account for approximately 95% of the brown hyena dietary intake (Mills, 1984;Maude & Mills, 2005), and hence, both hyena species compete for the same resources. In central Tuli, the most numerous large carnivore species are spotted hyena and to a lesser extent leopard, which could provide scavenging opportunities for brown hyena (Mills, 1984;Stein, Fuller & Marker, 2013;Williams et al., 2018). ...
... Although an increase in scavenging opportunities as a result of high carnivore densities could facilitate hyena coexistence, other research has shown that spotted hyena densities negatively correlate with densities of the subordinate brown hyena (Mills, 1990;Mills & Funston, 2003). With the found high densities of spotted and brown hyena, this study adds to the known variation in composition of existing large carnivore communities and suggests testable explanations for these densities. ...
p>Large carnivore populations are declining worldwide due to anthropogenic causes such as habitat loss and human expansion into wild areas. Competition between large carnivores can exacerbate this decline. While brown hyena Parahyaena brunnea and spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta belong to the same family, they are rarely found in the same area or co-occur at low densities as spotted hyena are known to exclude brown hyena. In Central Tuli, Botswana, however, brown hyena and spotted hyena are both found at high densities. We undertook a camera trap survey in this area to estimate the densities of both species, and to examine temporal overlap and co-detection patterns of brown and spotted hyena. Estimated population densities based on spatial capture–recapture models were 10.5 ± 1.9/100 km2 for brown hyena and 14.9 ± 2.2/100 km2 for spotted hyena. These population densities are among the highest reported estimates in southern Africa. Strong temporal overlap was found between brown and spotted hyena, while there was no decrease in detection rate of brown hyena at camera sites where spotted hyena were also detected, which indicates that both hyena species did not tend to avoid encounters. Although both species compete for the same prey, we suggest as possible explanations that prey densities are high and that competition does not significantly negatively impact brown hyena, because brown hyena is a scavenger whereas spotted hyena scavenge and kill prey. With the found high densities of both carnivores, this study adds to the known variation in composition of existing large carnivore communities and suggests testable explanations for these densities.</p
... The African large carnivore guild is dominated by large, competitive predators, such as lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta), with smaller, subordinate predators, such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), occupying the lower trophic positions (Hunter, 1998;Durant, 2000;Mills et al., 2004;Radloff & du Toit, 2004;Bissett, 2007;Hayward et al., 2007;Mills, 2015). However, the historical ranges of these carnivores have contracted by upwards of 70% across the continent in recent decades, mainly because of the exponential growth of the human population, coupled with a constant tug-of-war between resource use and preservation (Massey et al., 2014;Bauer et al., 2015). ...
... Although the cheetahs superficially appeared to broaden their diet after the lions were re-introduced, kudu, springbok and grey rhebok remained preferred prey items, and these species constituted the majority of their diet. Our findings for cheetah diet and prey preferences are also generally consistent with previous work (Mills et al., 2004;Radloff & du Toit, 2004;Hayward et al., 2006;Bissett & Bernard, 2007;Tambling et al., 2014;Mills, 2015). A meta-analysis of cheetah diet studies from across their range predicted that cheetahs will preferentially hunt the most abundant, medium-sized prey species in a particular area (Hayward et al., 2006). ...
... Although the lions, like the cheetahs, also preferred kudu and grey rhebok (in the case of the lioness), overall preference values were higher for eland, buffalo, and red hartebeest, and the cheetahs did not select these species. These results are also consistent with the findings from other studies across Africa for lions (van Orsdol, 1984, Mills & Shenk, 1992, Hunter, 1998, Funston and Mills, 2006, Hayward & Kerley, 2005, Loveridge et al., 2009, Tambling & Belton, 2009, Tambling et al., 2010, Bissett et al., 2012, Mills, 2015, Davies et al., 2016. ...
African lions (Panthera leo) can influence the location, distribution and behaviour of smaller carnivores such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). In fenced protected areas, where space is limited, the effects of the apex predator can be exaggerated to the point of localized extinction of the subordinate. Here, we directly compare the prey selection of cheetahs before and after the re‐introduction of lions to the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa. The lion re‐introduction did not significantly influence the diet of the cheetahs. Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) comprised >75% of cheetah diet both before and after the lion re‐introduction with no noticeable changes in the size ranges of prey selected. In addition, there was no significant dietary overlap (O < 0.45) with the lions. Our study supports recent findings that cheetahs, as subordinate predators, can coexist with larger, more aggressive carnivores within an enclosed environment without compromising access to resources. However, our work represents a temporal snapshot into lion and cheetah foraging behaviour in an enclosed system and we recommend further research across multiple sites and predator densities.
... Hyaena and Parahyaena are unusual among extant large-bodied hypercarnivores in having small but functional talonids on m1 (Ewer, 1954), whereas Crocuta more closely resembles felids in its longer trigonid and a near-vestigial talonid (and has a relative trigonid length >0.9; Van Valkenburgh, 1989). This difference may be related to the substantial amount of fruit consumed by Parahyaena and Hyaena (~12%-20% of diet by volume) but not by Crocuta (Kruuk, 1976;Owens and Owens, 1978;Mills, 2015). Molar trigonid length is unlikely to be correlated with bone-cracking habits in hyaenids, as hyenas primarily employ premolars in this function (Werdelin, 1989). ...
Thylacosmiline sparassodonts (previously recognized as thylacosmilids) are among the most iconic groups of endemic South American Cenozoic mammals due to their distinctive morphology and convergent resemblance to saber-toothed placental carnivores. However, the early evolution of this group and its relationship to other sparassodonts remains poorly understood, primarily because only highly specialized Neogene taxa such as Thylacosmilus, Anachlysictis, and Patagosmilus are well known. Here, we describe a new Paleogene sparassodont, Eomakhaira molossus, from the Cachapoal locality of central Chile, the first sparassodont reported from early Oligocene strata of the Abanico Formation. Eomakhaira shares features with both Neogene thylacosmilines and Paleogene “proborhyaenids,” and phylogenetic analyses recover this taxon as sister to the clade of Patagosmilus + Thylacosmilus. This broader clade, in turn, is nested within the group conventionally termed Proborhyaenidae. Our analyses support prior hypotheses of a close relationship between thylacosmilines and traditionally recognized proborhyaenids and provide the strongest evidence to date that thylacosmilines are proborhyaenids (i.e, the latter name as conventionally used refers to a paraphyletic group). To reflect the internestedness of these taxa, we propose use of Riggs' (1933) original name Thylacosmilinae for the less inclusive grouping and Proborhyaenidae for the more inclusive one. Saber teeth arose just once among metatherians (among thylacosmilines), perhaps reflecting a developmental constraint related to nonreplacement of canines in metatherians; hypselodonty may have relaxed this potential constraint in thylacosmilines. The occurrence of Eomakhaira in strata of early Oligocene age from the Chilean Andes demonstrates that the stratigraphic range of thylacosmilines spanned almost 30 million years, far surpassing those of saber-toothed placental lineages.
... We follow Mills (2015) in defining an 'arid habitat' as one with less than 350 mm mean annual rainfall. The following abbreviations are used: TMVU (Tsavo Mobile Veterinary Unit), BEA (British East Africa), SA (South Africa). ...
This article references the interactions between lions and porcupines in Africa
as well as a case study, 'The Maneater of Darajani'
