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This study examined the effectiveness of a logbook and paperclip technique on awareness of the use and content of negative self-talk as well as the motivation to change negative self-talk. Participants (n = 73) completed a questionnaire measuring these variables, and were assigned to either a control, paperclip or logbook group. Participants perfor...
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... the covariate was significant, F (1, 56) = 28.69, p < .001, eta 2 = .34. However, no significant difference between the groups emerged. Awareness of the Use of Negative Self-Talk. The ANCOVA indicated a significant effect of the covariate, F (1, 56) = 4.77, p < .03, eta 2 = .08. Furthermore, a significant difference between the groups was revealed, F (2, 56) = 6.98, p < .01, eta 2 = .20. Bryant-Paulson follow up tests indicated that the logbook group had significantly greater awareness of USE than the control group. No other group differences emerged. Table 1 displays the adjusted means for each group. Awareness of the Content of Negative Self-Talk. The final ANCOVA revealed that the covariate was significant, F (1, 56) = 17.24, p < .001, eta 2 = .24, and also, a trend toward significance was detected between the groups, F (2, 56) = 2.59, p < .08, eta 2 = .09. Despite the p -value for this analysis not reaching the conventional criteria of .05, a moderate effect size was evident from this analysis (cf. Cohen, 1988), thus a visual inspection of the adjusted means was performed. This inspection revealed the both intervention groups appeared to have greater awareness of CONTENT than the control group (see Table 1). Two subsidiary analyses were undertaken to provide a more in-depth examination of the self-talk interventions. The first analysis examined the impact of the paper clip intervention on the number of negative self-statements made. This analysis was conducted to assess two alternative possibilities: (a) if the mere act of record- ing the use of negative self-talk is an effective means of reducing it, then we might expect the number of statements to decrease across sessions 1 ; or (b) whether the self-reported use of negative self-talk increased across the workout sessions, indicative of an accompanying raised awareness. A single-factor repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference in the reported use of negative self-talk across these sessions, F (2, 46) = 3.20, p = .05, eta 2 = .12. Tukey’s follow up tests indicated that participants recorded using more negative self-talk in the third com- pared with the first training session ( p < .05). Thus, some support for the second possibility was generated. The second subsidiary analysis involved a qualitative examination of the self- talk related data reported by the logbook group. Due to the nature of the questions asked in the logbooks, the qualitative analysis focused on three main issues; the situations and triggers during training that prompted the use of negative self-talk, the content of negative self-talk during training sessions, and perceived conse- quences and feelings resulting from the use of negative self-talk. An inductive content analysis was subsequently conducted on the open ended logbook responses. To do this the procedures outlined by Côté, Salmela, Baria, and Russell (1993) were followed. The outcome of this analysis identified themes, based on internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity, which emerged from the data which were, then categorized into higher order themes. The content analysis involved discussion of the data and coding by 3 raters until consensual agreement was achieved. This approach was employed as it has been suggested to allow more thoughtful and accurate conceptualization of subsequent themes/clusters than more nomothetic interjudge agreement methods (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997). To help assure that the coding into themes was transparent and logical an independent rater suc- cessful (86% agreement rate) coded all raw data themes into the resultant emergent themes. Discussion concerning discrepant encoding resulted in one higher order theme being renamed to better reflect its content (i.e., Increased task application was renamed to Application of effort) and concluded in consensus regarding the additional raw data theme allocations. The results from the qualitative analysis can be seen in Figures 1–3. With regard to the situations and triggers that prompted the use of negative self-talk (see Figure 1), 27 themes were extracted which were then categorized into seven higher order themes. As a result, participants reported that their negative self-talk was most commonly associated with the onset of physical discomfort (e.g., pain and tiredness), the presence of task related cues (e.g., increased task difficulty), negative performance cues (e.g., underperforming and unsuccessful task execu- tion), and within different segments of the workout, with greatest endorsement for its occurrence being toward the end of a session. Although to a lesser extent, negative self-talk was also prompted by a loss of task application (e.g., wanting to stop or a loss of focus), negative attitudes (e.g., poor self-expectations), and nega- tive emotions (e.g., anger). Data related to the content of the negative self-talk were organized into 19 themes which were subsequently arranged into seven higher order themes (see Figure 2). Primarily, the content of negative self-talk was representative of the task at hand and the engagement of the participants with this task. For example, analysis of the data revealed that much of it reflected a performance orientation (e.g., not meeting expectations and performance criticisms), a lack of ability (e.g., criticisms of ability), and a lack of task application (e.g., lack of motivation or effort) although bodily discomfort (e.g., reflecting pain and tiredness) was also a well represented higher order theme. Finally, as far as the consequences and feelings following the use of negative self-talk were concerned a total of 40 data themes were extracted and then organized into 12 higher order themes (see Figure 3). These 12 higher order themes were clustered into 3 broader themes representing negative and positive consequences as well as, to a much lesser extent, neutral consequences (e.g., mixed emotions). A common trend that emerged from the higher order themes identified was that regard- less of whether the consequences were negative or positive; affective, behavioral, cognitive, and motivational aspects were represented. For example, the negative consequences cluster was comprised of higher order themes such as; negative emo- tions (e.g., frustration and annoyance), reduced performance (e.g., decreased pace), decreased psychological control (e.g., loss of focus), and a reduction in motivation (e.g., less determined to continue). On the other hand, examples of positive conse- quences which emerged from the data included; positive affect (e.g., feeling more positive), application of effort (e.g., increased effort), the use of cognitive strate- gies (e.g., increased focus), and elevated motivation (e.g., motivated to continue). The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the effectiveness of two intervention approaches (i.e., a logbook and paperclip exercise) which have been advanced within the self-talk literature (e.g., Zinsser et al., 2006) to enhance the awareness of self-talk. The specific focus of our study was negative self-talk and in particular, awareness of the use and content of negative self-talk as well as the motivation to alter the use of negative self-talk. Results offered initial partial support for the a priori hypotheses. Although neither intervention group differed from the control group for the motivation dependent variable, the logbook group reported significantly better awareness of their use of negative self-talk (i.e., how much was used), and tended to have greater awareness of their content of negative self-talk (i.e., what was used), in comparison with the control group. Consequently, the awareness oriented findings were somewhat consistent with our theorizing. Taken together, these preliminary findings offer some promising evidence that may help guide consultants’ practice. Although both interventions are rela- tively inexpensive, simple, and portable, when one considers the present findings collectively, it appears that the logbook technique might be of greater value than the paperclip approach. This stance can be justified by the findings that although both treatments groups produced equivalent awareness of the content of negative self-talk, the logbook group reported greater awareness than the control group concerning the use of negative self-talk. The logbook has the logistical advantage of also being less invasive and potentially disruptive than the paperclip technique. In addition, the logbook technique might encourage deeper self-reflection by the client regarding his/her use of negative self-talk as compared with the paperclip protocol. Dependent on the questions posed, this might also include such issues as the sources of his/her negative self-talk and situations that prompt it, for example. Nevertheless, it should be highlighted that the logbook approach employed in the current study can be improved; tailored to the individual and more fully incorpo- rated into the sports environment. Indeed, it has been suggested that statements used by athletes should be recorded immediately after they occur (Zinsser et al., 2006). Self-paced sports such as golf, snooker, crown green bowling, and curling lend themselves to integrating logbooks more fully into practice sessions than relatively dynamic sports such as soccer, rugby, and hockey. However, it is possible that the two interventions examined could be employed in combination, whereby statements are recorded as they occur by way of a small, lightweight, and portable digital recorder (e.g., a MP3 player) placed on the participant but out of their way so as not to interfere with performance. Furthermore, as Van Raalte et al.’s (1994) observation based findings suggest that negative self-talk is commonly used overtly, it may be possible to obtain rich negative self-talk data by periodically videotaping (with sound) athletes during their practices and competitions. The method of audio recording ...
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Citations
... • Lily will maintain a log of her efforts to alter negative self-talk, a technique with proven efficacy (Hardy et al., 2009). ...
... According to experimental research, those who struggle to focus on relevant stimuli are more likely to become distracted (23). The benefits of self-talk have been discussed, including its ability to enhance attentional processes (24) and manage internal and external distractions. Thus, it appears from the current research that educational strategic self-talk has improved dart-throwing performance by enhancing focus and decreasing distraction. ...
... Self-talk or inner speak addressed to the self, pertains to phrases or statements individuals recite aloud or internally to increase motivation and focus (Hardy et al., 2009). This strategy has been a frequently used psychological skill (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2016) and has long been used to enhance performance in sports (Hardy et al., 2009). ...
... Self-talk or inner speak addressed to the self, pertains to phrases or statements individuals recite aloud or internally to increase motivation and focus (Hardy et al., 2009). This strategy has been a frequently used psychological skill (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2016) and has long been used to enhance performance in sports (Hardy et al., 2009). Much of the self-talk literature stems from the sport domain, with studies reporting that 85% of adult athletes engage in self-talk during sport-related activities (Nedergaard et al., 2021). ...
... The authors stated that this finding might have resulted from participants in the negative (plus challenging) self-talk group internalizing portions of the negative self-talk statement and possibly perceiving the negative statement as challenging (i.e., I can push through it), which led to improved performance. Additionally, participants could perceive a motivational component of negative self-talk, which could enhance performance (Hardy et al., 2009), and negative self-talk could promote a challenge state, which has been associated with improved motor task performance (Hase et al., 2019). Regarding self-talk type (i.e., motivational vs. instructional), Hatzigeorgiadis and colleagues (2014) proposed a matching hypothesis. ...
Self-talk pertains to phrases individuals recite aloud or internally to increase motivation and focus and is a frequently used psychological skill that promotes enhanced sport performance. Several studies have examined how different these forms of self-talk can affect the execution of specific tasks in sport, but few have examined if self-talk can improve performance in basic activities of daily living, such as balance. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two different self-talk strategies on static balance and body stability during a single-leg balance task. Twenty-nine participants were divided into three groups (control group, positive self-talk group, negative self-talk group) and performed a single-leg balance task on the right and left leg while donning inertial measurement units and standing on a force platform and while reciting a positive, negative, or no self-talk strategy (i.e., control). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were detected in the anterior-posterior center of pressure displacement and velocity, and the anterior-posterior center of mass displacement and velocity of the right and left legs. The findings of this study do not suggest that positive or negative self-talk impacts performance during a single-leg balance task.
... Negative self-talk becomes a key factor in trail running, as it is a sport where the communicative action is solely directed to oneself, and the athlete is involved in an emotionally stressful action. These findings are in line with previous studies pointing at negative self-talk as a potential mediator between personal factors and affectual negative mechanisms as anxiety (e.g., Hardy et al., 2009b). ...
... Golfers will react in different ways to mistakes and successes, but their internal monologue, known as self-talk, can also influence how they feel, how they respond, and importantly, their stress response. Self-talk can consist of automatic thoughts or more deliberate verbalisations (Hardy et al., 2009), and there is a plethora of evidence that supports the use of positive, motivational, and instructional self-talk as beneficial for performance (Tod et al., 2011). Research suggests that when motivational self-talk is employed, it can strengthen the relationship between challenge states and performance (Hase et al., 2019a). ...
... These studies focused on diverse sport psychological topics such as the awareness and motivation to change negative self-talk (Hardy, Oliver, et al., 2009), competition stress (Neil et al., 2011, an application of the individual zone of optimal functioning (Woodcock et al., 2012), or the temporal patterns of attentional foci (Bernier et al., 2016). The findings indicated that negative self-talk was positively associated with negative emotions (Hardy, Roberts, et al., 2009;Neil et al., 2011Woodcock et al., 2012) or a debilitative interpretation of anxiety (Neil et al., 2011), while positive self-talk was positively associated with positive emotions . However, one study showed that negative self-talk was also positively associated with positive emotions, although to a lesser extent than with negative emotions (Hardy, Roberts, et al., 2009). ...
... The findings indicated that negative self-talk was positively associated with negative emotions (Hardy, Roberts, et al., 2009;Neil et al., 2011Woodcock et al., 2012) or a debilitative interpretation of anxiety (Neil et al., 2011), while positive self-talk was positively associated with positive emotions . However, one study showed that negative self-talk was also positively associated with positive emotions, although to a lesser extent than with negative emotions (Hardy, Roberts, et al., 2009). ...
... Importantly, some studies also revealed the existence of inverse relationships between the direction of valence of self-talk and the direction of valence of affective processes (De Muynck et al., 2020;Hardy, Roberts, et al., 2009;Latinjak, Viladrich, et al., 2016;. Complimentary to studies showing that self-talk classifications made by athletes themselves may differ from those done by researchers (Latinjak et al., 2017;Van Raalte et al., 2014), these findings point to the importance of taking the idiosyncratic interpretation of self-talk into account (Hardy, 2006;Latinjak, Hatzigeorgiadis, et al., 2019). ...
A perspective on self-talk introduced in the literature distinguishes between organic self-talk and strategic self-talk. Based on this perspective, the purpose of the present scoping review was to (a) give a comprehensive overview of studies investigating the relationship between organic self-talk and affective processes and (b) review the effectiveness of strategic self-talk to regulate affective processes. A systematic search was conducted with the databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus. As a result, 44 articles with 46 relevant studies were included for an in-depth analysis. Thirty studies focused on organic self-talk and 15 on strategic self-talk, while one study focused on both. With regard to organic self-talk, the results indicate a relatively consistent concurrence of the valence of self-talk and affective processes. In addition, various functions of self-talk relate to emotion regulation. For strategic self-talk, intervention studies, which were limited to the regulation of anxiety, revealed mixed effects. Based on the results, we discuss how the integration of various established theories in sport psychology in the new self-talk perspective might facilitate a more systematic approach when studying the relationship between self-talk and affective processes.
... Based on our findings, we recommend that sport consultants and coaches observe and keep frequencies to document selftalk use, and match this with self-report of perceived climate and motivation. Journaling and reflecting on what they say to themselves during sport experiences can facilitate and guide athletes through their self-talk (Hardy et al., 2009). When there are opportunities to observe, the coach can gain a sensitivity to the youth's private speech, and can use this speech as a tool to guide their instruction and scaffold sport skill (Winsler, 2009). ...
Purpose:
Motivation among young athletes can be reflected in their self-talk, a behavior that is often encouraged by coaches. Most research on self-talk in sport involves self-report, thus observational studies of the actual self-talk used in sport in relation to athlete motivation and coach support are needed.
Methods:
We observed young elite tennis athletes (N = 28) talking to themselves on the court and obtained self-reported measures of self-talk use, goal-orientation for sport, perception of coach motivational climate, and coach encouragement of self-talk. Results Results showed that higher levels of perceived coach mastery climate and personal mastery orientation typically coincided with more reported use of positive self-talk, while higher levels of perceived ego climate coincided with more frequent observed positive and motivational self-talk on the court. Coaches generally encouraged self-talk, but associations between coach encouragement and athlete self-talk use were sparse.
Conclusion:
Results suggest researchers need to examine how encouragement of self-talk affects both reported (inner) and observed (external) self-talk in youth sport.
... To measure whether the buddy is being held, the Hexiwear prototyping tool can be used, with an integrated accelerometer, vibration motor, Bluetooth low energy and a built-in battery. Another strategy could consist of decreasing the amount of negative self-talk [17] through an interactive device supporting self-awareness and reverse listing those negative thoughts. ...
Running is a popular recreational sport, yet for many amateur runners it remains challenging to turn intentions into sustainable running behavior. Although the market offers a myriad of running-related devices that aim to motivate runners, these often focus on the training itself and not on overcoming the barriers experienced prior to the run. A better understanding of these barriers to running is essential to identify design opportunities for technologies supporting amateur runners. We conducted two complementary studies among participants of a women-only running event. Combining an online survey (N = 114) and a journey mapping activity (N = 13), we investigated the influence of motivational barriers and enablers in runners' rituals. Based on our findings, we created the Runner's Journey, a visual narrative highlighting actionable design opportunities for running motivation technology. We propose five design recommendations to overcome barriers among amateur runners.
... In this sense, in the context of clinical psychology, self-talk emerges as one of the most common variables for the treatment of fear, anxiety, and depression (Kross et al., 2014). Specifically, self-talk refers to a cognitive behavioral modification technique based on changing negative thoughts for other more useful ones to improve self-control (Hardy et al., 2009). Hence, when we extrapolate these concepts to sport psychology, it is important to promote positive self-talk that enhances performance, or identify relevant techniques and variables to modify negative self-talk and change it to positive self-talk in a competitive situation. ...
The current study aimed to evaluate the determinant factors of athletesínternal positive self-talk that might lead to decreased anxiety and increased performance. The sample consisted of 191 male and female athletes ranging in age from 14 to 35 years old. They played soccer, volleyball and basketball and they were cadets (43%), juniors (29.6 %) and adults (27.4%). Results showed that satisfaction of the basic psychological needs was the strongest predictor of positive self-talk or positive thoughts during competition. Specifically, perception of autonomy was the strongest predictor, because it positively predicted concentration, control of anxiety and instructions, followed by perception of competence, which positively predicted confidence. Finally, team sports coaches should promote perception of autonomy and competence in their athletes, with the aim of enhancing more positive self-talk in competition, which may promote a better performance.
... Finally, at the end of the intervention "she was able to look for alternatives in her self-talk." The importance of awareness and motivation to change negative self-talk has received support in earlier studies in sports (Hardy et al., 2009b). In comparison, Julia even from the beginning, "had few problems identifying situations, emotions, thoughts, and self-talk, and reflecting on the effects of the latter." ...
This study prospectively followed the experiences of skilled athletes who were involved in an innovative reflexive self-talk online intervention targeting goal-directed self-talk. Four experienced female athletes between the ages of 20 and 40 years were invited to an initial interview, a 4-week intervention, and two post-intervention interviews. Two applied sport psychologists used an online Socratic questioning approach to encourage their athletes to describe challenging scenarios, think about their use of self-talk and its effectiveness, and explore alternative self-statements that could be used in future situations. Data were multi-sourced stemming from the psychologists, athletes, and third parties (e.g., coach). Three athletes completed the intervention, whereas one athlete withdrew prematurely, mainly because the Socratic questioning approach and the online mode of delivery did not meet her preferences. From the three athlete who had completed the intervention, there was endorsement and constructive criticism of the intervention and its online delivery mode. The intervention, largely due to the accompanying raised awareness of self-talk use and refined content, seemingly benefited a range of variables including emotions, motivation, and confidence, both inside and outside of the athletes’ sports life domain. Accordingly, this new type of online intervention warrants further consideration in the literature.
