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The Themes and the Three Most Frequently-Occurring Concepts of Ideal-Mother/Father Beliefs Across the Parenting Culture Zones

The Themes and the Three Most Frequently-Occurring Concepts of Ideal-Mother/Father Beliefs Across the Parenting Culture Zones

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What is it to be “an ideal parent”? Does the answer differ across countries and social classes? To answer these questions in a way that minimizes bias and ethnocentrism, we used open-ended questions to explore ideal-parent beliefs among 8,357 mothers and 3,517 fathers from 37 countries. Leximancer Semantic Network Analysis was utilized to first det...

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... number of parents in each zone is given in Table 1. Table 2 shows the three most frequent concepts and the three major themes (i.e., the most connected concepts for the theme) of the ideal-mother/-father beliefs across the five parenting culture zones together with their frequency counts. In addition, the semantic network maps delineating the ideal-parent beliefs and their association with the educational level groups in the five parenting culture zones are shown in Figure 2. ...
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... results revealed both commonalities and differences between the predominant idealparent beliefs in the five parenting culture zones. With regard to the commonalities of beliefs, we found that the extracted concepts were highly similar across gender within each parenting culture zone (see Table 2). In addition, a similar set of extracted concepts (e.g., "loving," "responsible," and "patient") were also found across the five culture zones (see Figure 2). ...
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... addition, a similar set of extracted concepts (e.g., "loving," "responsible," and "patient") were also found across the five culture zones (see Figure 2). However, the importance (i.e., frequency count; see Table 2) of each concept was different between culture zones, and this was what constituted the specificity of each culture. In particular, "responsible" ranked at the top of the list in both the Asian and African parenting culture zones. ...
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... for the concepts, commonalities and differences appeared for the themes across parenting cultures. In terms of commonalities, the extracted major themes and community of concepts around them, were highly similar between ideal-mother and ideal-father beliefs (see Table 2 and Figure 2). ...
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... for Hispanic-Italian, Western I and Russian, and Western II parents; see below), the frequency count of the two subsequent themes (these themes differed across zones; see Table 2) decreased drastically, suggesting that ideal-parent beliefs are organized around one main theme around the globe. However, the topics of the themes reflected cultural characteristics. ...
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... number of parents in each zone is given in Table 1. Table 2 shows the three most frequent concepts and the three major themes (i.e., the most connected concepts for the theme) of the ideal-mother/-father beliefs across the five parenting culture zones together with their frequency counts. In addition, the semantic network maps delineating the ideal-parent beliefs and their association with the educational level groups in the five parenting culture zones are shown in Figure 2. ...
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... results revealed both commonalities and differences between the predominant idealparent beliefs in the five parenting culture zones. With regard to the commonalities of beliefs, we found that the extracted concepts were highly similar across gender within each parenting culture zone (see Table 2). In addition, a similar set of extracted concepts (e.g., "loving," "responsible," and "patient") were also found across the five culture zones (see Figure 2). ...
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... addition, a similar set of extracted concepts (e.g., "loving," "responsible," and "patient") were also found across the five culture zones (see Figure 2). However, the importance (i.e., frequency count; see Table 2) of each concept was different between culture zones, and this was what constituted the specificity of each culture. In particular, "responsible" ranked at the top of the list in both the Asian and African parenting culture zones. ...
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... for the concepts, commonalities and differences appeared for the themes across parenting cultures. In terms of commonalities, the extracted major themes and community of concepts around them, were highly similar between ideal-mother and ideal-father beliefs (see Table 2 and Figure 2). ...
Context 10
... for Hispanic-Italian, Western I and Russian, and Western II parents; see below), the frequency count of the two subsequent themes (these themes differed across zones; see Table 2) decreased drastically, suggesting that ideal-parent beliefs are organized around one main theme around the globe. However, the topics of the themes reflected cultural characteristics. ...

Citations

... Parental sacrifice for children is considered normal and noble (Chao, 1996;Leung, 2020), with filial obligation dictating lifelong parental involvement and responsibility for offspring's happiness (Qi, 2015). Indeed, being "responsible" and "child-focused" (e.g., doing things for their children) ranks highest for ideal-parent beliefs among Asian parents compared to other cultures, as evidenced in survey of ideal-parent beliefs across 37 countries (Lin et al., 2023). In all, the Chinese cultural code rationalizes and legitimizes child-centered parenting. ...
... This offset effect may be more prominent among Chinese parents, considering the emotional rewards of providing for children seem exceptional in China (Qian & Knoester, 2015). Chinese strongly upholds the value of having and raising children for a sense of fulfillment (Inglehart et al. 2004;Zhang & Shi, 2019), and Chinese parents' ideal-parent beliefs are identified as more child-focused and responsibility-oriented compared to their Western counterparts (Lin et al., 2023), according to pan cross-cultural studies. In this context, the substantial provision and involvement inherent in parental indulgence align with Chinese cultural expectations of a good parent. ...
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How does prioritizing children’s happiness over their own impact parents’ well-being? This study contributes to addressing this question by investigating the relationship between indulgent parenting (parenting style prioritizing children’s moment-to-moment happiness) and parents’ well-being through an interdependent, dyadic approach. We focus on the congruence and discrepancies in the perception of indulgent parenting between parents and adolescents, examining their associations with parents’ depressive symptoms and life satisfaction in two remarkably different cultures sharing the norm of child-centered, intensive parenting. Survey data were collected from 122 parent-adolescent dyads in the United States and 402 dyads in China. Using response surface analysis (RSA), we found that parents reported the most optimal well-being (the lowest levels of depressive symptoms and the highest levels of life satisfaction) when parents and adolescents agreed on low indulgence. Congruence on high indulgence was linked to more depressive symptoms and lower life satisfaction in parents. The worst well-being was reported by parents in dyads characterized by perception discrepancy, where parents reported providing high indulgence to their adolescent children while their adolescents reported receiving low indulgence from the parents. These patterns are generally consistent in both countries, but cultural variations are also identified – indulgent parenting appears to have a less negative association with the well-being of Chinese parents compared to American parents.
... All the experts involved in the qualitative assessment of the item relevance were born in Sweden, which limit the cultural applicability of their assessments. Parenting behaviors and norms vary across cultures (Lin et al., 2023), and the lack of expert diversity may affect the generalizability of the results of the current study. Future research should involve experts from more diverse backgrounds to ensure broader applicability across different populations. ...
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Parental overprotection is thought to be a risk factor for childhood anxiety disorders. The Parental Overprotection Measure (POM) is a self-assessment scale that has been used in many studies, however, no article has comprehensively explored its psychometric properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the POM to secure reliable, replicable, and comparable results. Using an item-response theoretical framework, we aimed to address five basic criteria of psychometric quality: one-dimensionality, ordered response categories, invariance, targeting, and reliability. Furthermore, we aimed to identify and exclude any items that did not contribute significantly, to create a concise and practical scale. A total of 1092 parents of children aged 4–12 years were recruited through an online advertisement and completed an anonymous online survey during September and October 2020. Out of the 19 items of the original scale, eight were excluded due to unsatisfactory psychometric properties and/or because of not being judged by experts as harmonious with the concept of parental overprotection. The retained items constituted the POM-11, a brief scale with sound psychometric properties that has the potential for use in both research and clinical settings.
... Research has shown that while women remain the primary caregivers, men want to be actively involved in (Ishizuka, 2019) and increasingly engage in raising their children (Beglaubter, 2021). Furthermore, studies show that both men and women declare the same parenting behaviors as preferred and considered best for children (Ishizuka, 2019;Lin et al., 2023). In light of this shift, the term "intensive mothering" has been gradually substituted with the term "intensive parenting" (Faircloth, 2014). ...
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Intensive parenting (IP) is a contemporary parenting norm that emphasizes investing in children for their optimal growth and often strains parental resources. It demands centering family life around children and providing them with stimulating environments. Previous studies predominantly link IP to socioeconomic factors, overlooking its psychological determinants. Our research explores how support for IP is tied to individuals’ value systems. We use data from CRONOS online survey, conducted as a part of the European Social Survey (ESS) in 2016–2018. It covered over 1,500 people aged 18 and older. The survey included items that allowed the measurement of two central dimensions of IP: child-centeredness and stimulation (dependent variables in our study). To measure individuals’ values (our explanatory variables), we use ESS Schwartz’s value scale. Our analyses also controlled for key socioeconomic variables (country, sex, age, education, parity). Regression analysis reveals that tradition and security values positively correlate with both dimensions of intensive parenting, highlighting motivations to preserve traditions and ensure a secure future for children. Centering family’s life around children is additionally linked to benevolence, while the stimulation dimension – to achievement and (negatively) to universalism. This suggests that different aspects of IP may be motivated to some extent differently. Highlights • Childrearing standard of intensive parenting (IP) is tied to human values. • Importance of tradition and security is a shared core for different aspects of IP. • Child-centeredness ties additionally to caring for family wellbeing. • Providing children with stimulation appears to be additionally fueled by the need of achievement. • Depending on how IP is motivated, it may carry different consequences for children and parents.
... However, ideals are cultural constructs influenced by historical and cultural contexts and thereby vary across geographical locations and periods (Holland 2011;Riley and van Vleet 2011). Research on good parenthood has focused predominantly on practices in Western English-speaking countries so little is known about parenting in non-Western cultures (Lin et al. 2023). In a large-scale international study, Lin et al. (2023) identified five parenting models in operation in different parts of the world, thus showing that parental ideals may vary depending on different geographical locations and cultural contexts. ...
... Research on good parenthood has focused predominantly on practices in Western English-speaking countries so little is known about parenting in non-Western cultures (Lin et al. 2023). In a large-scale international study, Lin et al. (2023) identified five parenting models in operation in different parts of the world, thus showing that parental ideals may vary depending on different geographical locations and cultural contexts. ...
... As crucial requirements, in this case the applicant highlights love, intimacy, security, and acceptance of the child for who they are (c.f. Lasio et al. 2021;Lin et al. 2023). The applicant expands upon her thoughts in line 28, emphasizing the importance of allowing children the freedom to explore the world around them, using the term 'explore' (Sw. ...
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Assessment and evaluation of parenting ability are central tasks in social work. However, parenthood is a normative and morally bound practice, subject to cultural expectations about what constitutes 'good' parent-hood. In adoption assessment interviews, prospective adoptive parents' potential as parents is thoroughly examined, requiring adoption applicants to articulate their ideas about future parenthood. This study is based on authentic assessment interviews conducted in Sweden between social workers and prospective adoptive parent, in the context of an international adoption process. The article explores how ideals of adoptive parenthood are expressed and performed by prospective adoptive parents in their interactions with social workers. The findings show that adoption applicants present their suitability as parents based on references to children's needs, specific personal characteristics, and envisioned future actions. The study supports previous research on idealized parental models in adoption assessments and provides insights into how these portrayals are shaped through interaction. Furthermore, the study raises questions about the governance of specific parenthood ideals and the limited opportunities adoption applicants have to express or explore alternative perspectives on parenthood. ARTICLE HISTORY
... The purpose of this article is to selectively highlight some of the major contributions to developmental science emanating from Latin America, a vital region within the Global South. A recent study that used network analysis to establish parenting regions from around the world is introduced as an illustrative case to highlight the contributions of local, contextual knowledge in elaborating the complexity and meaning of parenting (Lin et al., 2023). ...
... Although the central role of culture in human development is widely recognized (Bornstein, 2012;Cole, 1996;Super & Harkness, 1986), it is often neglected or sidelined in developmental research. A recent exception is a semantic network analysis that provides evidence both for the centrality of culture in parenting as well as the limitations of broad overviews (Lin et al., 2023). Parents from 37 countries described the ideal parent in five one-word entries, and the results revealed five parenting cultures. ...
... A third critique by Raval (2023) advocates for a decolonial approach to understanding parenting: the exploration of localized knowledge of communities. In sum, the general overview of ideal parenting by Lin et al. (2023) reveals regional and cultural differences, but those differences communicate little about parenting and cultural developmental science. ...
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Knowledge from the Global South, including Latin America, has enriched our understanding of developmental science. Despite underrepresentation in the published literature, research from Latin America has advanced the psychology of parenting and child and adolescent development. An ecological approach is valuable in adding meaning and specificity to general cultural clusters and has revealed how responsibility, lovingness, and respect are enacted in the everyday lives of families and children. Although the evidence is not exclusive to the Global South, research from Latin America has broadened and challenged theories and accepted practices from the Global North. Examples include countering attachment theory with respect to multiple caregivers and sensitive responsiveness and problematization of children’s work in terms of family responsibilities. Research from Latin America has also challenged the notion of optimal parenting styles and revealed how the cultural values of familism and respect are evidenced in the daily practices of parents and children. Latin America boasts a psychology that acknowledges the importance of the political and social context and seeks to apply psychology to addressing social problems. To fully recognize and take advantage of knowledge from the Global South, the science of psychology should refrain from promoting “best practices” and sidelining research from Latin America and other regions of the majority world; it needs to fully document autochthonous parental ethnotheories, socialization goals, and practices and promote the implementation of the goals of local communities.
... Future research with larger and more diverse samples is needed to determine whether our four-profile solution would generalize to a broader population. Given that the culture in which parents live greatly influences parenting beliefs and experiences (Lin et al., 2023), it is possible that different profiles of intensive mothering will emerge in different countries or cultures. Additionally, it is also important to investigate whether similar endorsement patterns emerge among fathers, as gender norms can contribute to differences in parenting attitudes (Ishizuka, 2019). ...
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The unrealistic expectations rooted in intensive mothering beliefs can negatively impact maternal well-being. The present study investigates associations between intensive mothering beliefs, parenting guilt, and parental burnout using a person-centered approach. We first examined whether different profiles of mothers exist based on their endorsement of the five subbeliefs of the Intensive Parenting Attitudes Questionnaire. We then tested associations between these profiles and parenting guilt and parental burnout and whether mothers’ demographic characteristics predicted profile membership. Using data from 291 mothers (61% White, 15% Black/African American) with at least one child under 6 years old, we identified four profiles of mothers. Two distinct patterns of intensive mothering endorsement emerged: mothers who exhibited consistent levels of endorsement across the five subbeliefs (i.e., high endorsement, moderate endorsement, and low endorsement) and mothers who were characterized by higher endorsement on fulfillment, stimulation, and child-centered but lower endorsement on essentialism and challenging (i.e., selective endorsement). Profile membership contributed to differences in parenting guilt and parental burnout. Parenting guilt was the highest in the profile characterized by the high levels of endorsement across all five subbeliefs (high endorsement) and was significantly higher than low endorsement. Parental burnout was the lowest in the selective endorsement and was significantly lower than in the high endorsement and moderate endorsement. These results highlight the heterogeneity of subscribing to intensive mothering beliefs and suggest that magnitude and patterns of endorsement of intensive mothering beliefs differentially contribute to parenting-related well-being.
... Out of these 18 studies, only three studies have highlighted research populations that included parents in their native countries not in North America or Western Europe. Most existing studies have also focused on parents' cultural beliefs from populations with discreet and stable cultural profiles (Lin et al., 2023). Malaysia as a multilingual, multiethnic society offers a relatively novel setting to conduct further work that is pertinent within this area of research. ...
Article
Objective This study provides insight into how cultural beliefs influence parents' causal attributions of maladaptive externalizing and internalizing behaviors in young children. Background Understanding how parents from different cultures explain difficult behavior in young children may inform culturally sensitive approaches for early intervention and prevention. To date, work on Malaysian parents' causal attributions of maladaptive behaviors in young children has received little empirical attention. Method We employed a semistructured interview method to assess Malaysian mothers' ( N = 16) open‐ended explanations for maladaptive externalizing and internalizing behavior in their young children, as depicted in hypothetical scenarios. Mothers' responses were coded according to a coding system of parental attributions. Results We identified cultural specificity in Malaysian parents' attributions of children's behaviors, with mothers endorsing reasons for children's maladaptive externalizing and internalizing behaviors that were not previously captured by the existing coding system. Mothers' attributions were informed by religious and spiritual beliefs. Conclusions Parents' causal attributions for children's maladaptive behaviors are culturally specific and are best captured by open‐ended approaches. Implications Cultural frames of reference shape parental beliefs, which are crucial to the effective formulation of early intervention and prevention approaches. Caution should be taken in general against universally operationalizing parents' attributions of children's behaviors.
... Therefore, the early phases of parenthood can be experienced as surprising, overwhelming, and even as a shock by new mothers and fathers (e.g., Johansson et al., 2016;Luppi, 2016;Newman, 2008;Raudasoja et al., 2022;Read et al., 2012;Sanders et al., 2023). New parents navigate their way in early parenthood as part of the surrounding society and associated parenting culture, which places expectations on parents that stem from the prevailing cultural ideals around 'good' motherhood and fatherhood (Lin et al., 2023;Rosen & Faircloth, 2020). In Finland, particularly women enter parenthood within a cultural climate highlighting the dominance of 'intensive' parenting (e.g., Raudasoja et al., 2022;Sihto & Mustosmäki, 2021), which considers optimum childrearing as child-centred, expert-guided, labour-intensive, and all-encompassing (Hays, 1996). ...
... The culturally dominant fatherhood ideal, in turn, highlights the expectation for men to widen their roles as involved and caring parents (Eerola, 2015), which, like the intensive parenting ideal, emphasizes the centrality and best interests of the child. Both expectations align with both the ideal-mother/-father type in Finland-that is, a parent who is 'loving, patient, and caring' (Lin et al., 2023)-and the cultural standard for 'positive parenting' (Sanders et al., 2020;Seay et al., 2014). However, the strong cultural preference for mother-centred care, which is highlighted, for example, by the unequal share of care-related leave between the parents (Eerola et al., 2022), places particular pressures on mothers and can make it difficult for fathers to obtain a position as capable caregivers (Nielsen & Westerling, 2015). ...
... A young child's cry, for example, can be perceived as stressful and worrisome (Johansson et al. 2016), which in addition to a slightly older child's strong expressions of own will, for instance, can arouse feelings of frustration and even anger in parents. Anger expression or aggressive behaviour due to losing control do not comply with the qualities of an ideal parent in Finland (Halonen et al., 2021;Lin et al., 2023) or the standards for 'positive parenting' (Sanders et al., 2020;Seay et al., 2014). Expressing negative emotions related to motherhood can be particularly difficult and arouse worries among mothers living in Finland, where becoming a mother is seen as a 'free choice' (Sihto & Mustosmäki, 2021). ...
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Objective: This study examines the extent to which the experience of parenthood worries among Finnish first-time parents predicts the probability of a second birth, and whether the associations differ according to the parent’s gender or the sufficiency of spousal support in parenting. Background: First-time parents’ withdrawal from having a second child has been connected to declining fertility rates in Finland and many other high-income countries; consequently, more understanding is needed about why parents potentially refrain from subsequent childbearing. Method: We utilize longitudinal survey data collected from Finnish parents (N = 544) in three waves (2016–2020). Results: The results show that experiencing parenthood worries significantly predicts the probability of a second birth. Specifically, the accumulation of parenthood worries predicted a lower probability of a second birth, and each additional worry decreased the probability significantly more for fathers compared to mothers. Although we found no gender differences regarding the associations between specific parenthood worries and the probability of a second birth, our results showed that fathers who worried about loneliness or having sole responsibility for parenting were less likely to have a second child than fathers with no such worries. In terms of the sufficiency of spousal support in parenting, we found, first, that among parents who received insufficient spousal support, those who worried about their parenting skills adequacy had a lower probability of a second birth than those with no such worries. Second, among parents with sufficient spousal support, worrying about their own ability to cope was associated with decreased probability of a second birth compared to those who did not experience such worry. Conclusion: Our findings provide new insights into the potential influence of parenthood worries experienced by first-time parents and the role of spousal support in subsequent childbearing.
... Good parenting beliefs have been found to be significantly different across cultures (Lin et al., 2023). Families on a low income may also be disproportionately affected by the impacts of misdiagnosis, such as premature cessation of breast/chestfeeding, the need to purchase formula milk (Salvatore et al., 2018) and the disproportionate impacts of health inequalities (Marmot, 2020). ...
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Aims To explore parents' experiences of unsettled babies and medical labels. Design Qualitative systematic review, thematic synthesis and development of a conceptual model. Review Methods Systematic review and thematic synthesis of primary, qualitative research into parents' experiences of unsettled babies <12 months of age. ‘Unsettled’ was defined as perception of excessive crying with additional feature(s) such as vomiting, skin or stool problems. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist was used to assess trustworthiness. Data Sources Structured searches completed in CINAHL, Medline, Embase, PsychINFO and CochraneCT on 23 March 2022 and rerun on 14 April 2023. Results Ten eligible studies were included across eight countries contributing data from 103 mothers and 24 fathers. Two analytical themes and eight descriptive themes were developed. Firstly, parents expressed fearing judgement, feeling guilty and out of control as a result of babies' unsettled symptoms and seeking strategies to construct an ‘Identity as a “Good Parent”’. This desire for positive parenting identity underpinned the second analytical theme ‘Searching for an explanation’ which included seeking external (medical) causes for babies' unsettled behaviours. Conclusion Parents can become trapped in a cycle of ‘searching for an explanation’ for their baby's unsettled behaviours, experiencing considerable distress which is exacerbated by feelings of guilt and failure. Impact and Implications for Patient Care Insight gained from this review could inform interventions to support parents, reducing inaccurate medicalization. Health visiting teams supporting parents with unsettled baby behaviour could focus on supporting a positive parenting identity by managing expectations, normalizing the continuum of infant behaviours, reducing feelings of guilt or uncertainty and helping parents regain a feeling of control. Reporting Method ENTREQ guidelines were adhered to in the reporting of this review. Patient or Public Contribution Parent input was crucial in the design phase; shaping the language used (e.g., ‘unsettled babies’) and in the analysis sense‐checking findings.
... encouragement, co-participation, role modelling, support for PA, and regulatory support for sleep and screen viewing restriction, may increase PA time, particularly moderate-to-vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA), and/or reduce screen-based SB time and/or promote sufficient sleep among children and adolescents aged 0 to 17 years [20][21][22][23]. Such parental practices are likely to vary based on social, cultural, and environmental factors [24]. ...
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Background Parental practices and neighbourhood environmental factors may influence children’s movement behaviours. We aimed to investigate the cross-sectional and prospective associations of parental practices and neighbourhood environmental factors with accelerometer-measured 24-hour movement behaviours (24 h-MBs) among school-aged children in Singapore. Methods The Growing Up in Singapore Towards healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study collected information on dimensions of parental practices and neighbourhood environment at age 5.5 years. Confirmatory factor analyses were performed to generate latent variables and used to compute overall parental practices [involvement in PA + support for PA + control of screen viewing context] and environmental scores [facilities for active play + active mobility facilitators + barriers*-1]. Children wore an accelerometer on their non-dominant wrist for seven consecutive days at ages 5.5 and 8 years. The R-package GGIR 2.6 was used to derive moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA), light-intensity physical activity (LPA), inactivity, and total-sleep (napping+night sleep) minutes per day. Associations were determined using compositional data analysis with multivariate linear regression models, taking into account potential confounders. Results Among 425 children (48% girls, 59% Chinese), higher parental involvement in PA, parental support for PA and overall parental practices were associated with 24 h-MBs at ages 5.5 and 8 years, specifically with greater time spent in MVPA and less time being inactive relative to the remaining movement behaviours. The corresponding mean changes in the overall 24 h-MB for increasing parental practices from lowest to highest scores (− 2 to + 2 z-scores) indicated potential increases of up to 15-minutes in MVPA, 20-minutes in LPA, 5-minutes in sleep duration, and a reduction of 40-minutes in inactivity at age 5.5 years. At age 8 years, this could translate to approximately 15-minutes more of MVPA, 20-minutes more of LPA, a 20-minute reduction in sleep duration, and a 20-minute reduction in inactivity. Parental control of screen viewing contexts and neighbourhood environmental factors were not associated with 24 h-MBs. Conclusions Parental practices but not environmental factors were associated with higher MVPA and lower inactivity among Singaporean children, even at a later age. Further research may provide insights that support development of targeted public health strategies to promote healthier movement behaviours among children. Study registration This study was registered on 4th August 2010 and is available online at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01174875.