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The Conjuror by Hieronymus Bosch (estimated 1475–1505). The conjuror on the right captures his audience attention with a game of cups and balls. Cups and balls routines were first introduced more than 2000 years ago and entail a host of classic effects of magic, such as vanishes, appearances, transpositions, and substitutions. Performing a cups and balls trick is highly regarded amongst magicians since it requires a great deal of motor skills and coordination, combined with an excellent audience management to effectively misdirect the spectators’ attention away from the method. In this painting, misdirection is so powerful that the spectator in the forefront, mesmerized by the conjuror’s performance, fails to notice that someone standing behind him is stealing his wallet.
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Misdirection refers to the magician’s ability to manipulate people’s attention, thoughts, and memory. It has been argued that some of the techniques used by magicians to orchestrate people’s attention and awareness may provide valuable insights into human cognition. In this paper we review the scientific, as well as some of the magic literature on...
Citations
... In this seminal study, Binet analyzed the tricks performed by renowned magicians of his time to understand the underlying psychological mechanisms (Binet, 1894;Thomas et al., 2016). Following this work, numerous experimental studies have explored the cognitive processes subtly manipulated by magicians, particularly in the realms of perception (Ekroll, 2019;Thomas & Didierjean, 2016a;Thomas et al., 2022), attention (Kuhn & Martinez, 2012;Kuhn et al., 2014), problem solving (Thomas & Didierjean, 2016b), and decision making (Pailhès & Kuhn, 2020; for a review, see Thomas et al., 2015). Although these studies have provided insight into the cognitive biases involved in a wide range of magic tricks, few have focused on the personalities of the magicians themselves. ...
Over the past 7 decades, researchers have examined the personalities of creative individuals across various fields, including architecture, art, and science, for instance. These studies have highlighted distinct conative and cognitive traits associated with each of these different domains. But what about the creators in relatively unexplored domains such as magic for example? Do magicians present personality traits distinct from those of the general population? In this exploratory study, we conducted a comparative analysis of the personality traits of 60 magicians and 60 nonmagicians assessing the Big Five traits, creative self and narcissism. The findings indicate that magicians score higher on openness, extraversion, agreeableness, creative self, and narcissism compared to nonmagicians. Furthermore, a distinction was made between magicians based on their years of practice. Results indicate that the most experienced magicians scored higher on openness compared to less experienced magicians. In addition, we sought to predict creative self within the entire sample, encompassing both magicians and nonmagicians. The results revealed that openness is the only predictor of creative self. Consequently, this study highlights the significance of openness in the field of magic. Our results could have practical implications, particularly in the implementation of magic-based interventions aimed at developing certain personality traits such as openness.
... Over 150 papers have now appeared, covering a wide range of topics such as problem solving [1], well-being [2], agency [3], motion [4], belief formation [5], artificial intelligence [6], eyewitness testimony [7], expertise [8], motor rehabilitation [9], amodal completion [10], and autism [11]. These are all in addition to the work on visual attention (see [12] for an early review), the field that have been central to the science of magic endeavour. ...
A number of authors have argued that the art of conjuring can assist the development of theories and knowledge in visual cognition and psychology more broadly. A central assumption of the so-called science of magic is that magicians possess particular insight into human cognition. In a series of experiments, we tested the Insight hypothesis by assessing three factors that magicians argue are important for a popular illusion. Participants viewed videos of a magician performing the French Drop sleight whilst gaze, motion, and muscular tension were manipulated across experiments. Contrary to what the community of conjurers state, results showed that none of these influenced the perceived success of the effect. We also found that a visual priming technique, one suggested of many and used by an eminent magician, does not influence participant responses. Overall, these findings fail to support the Insight hypothesis. We suggest that scientists of magic have erroneously imbued magicians with insights they do not possess.
... According to Kuhn et al. (2014) misdirection encompasses any psychological process that prevents the observer from attributing the true cause to an effect. To do so, the magicians can manipulate any of these three mental processes (Kuhn and Martinez, 2012). ...
The art of magic relies on deception and illusions to create human experiences that appear impossible. Misdirection lies at the heart of this deceptive art, and yet there is little consensus as to what this concept aims to describe. The concept of misdirection is not limited to magic, and its principles are applied to wide aspects of our lives (e.g., politics, public health, marketing). In recent years, scientists have started to examine the psychological mechanisms that underpin misdirection and new theoretical frameworks have been developed to help understand the concept itself. This paper will provide two different perspectives on misdirection. In the first section we will discuss its use in magic and examine some of the key features involved in using misdirection to create magical illusions. This section will examine some common misconceptions of misdirection. The second section will provide a psychological perspective that discusses the key psychological mechanisms that are involved in misdirection (perception, memory, reasoning). This paper aims to provide a clearer understanding of how misdirection is used in magic which can serve as the basis for its use in other domains, such as public health.
... To do so, we employed a very common magic effect named cups-and-balls. The cups-and-balls routine is typically described as a cognitive illusion (Rieiro et al., 2013) because it is used to manipulate human perception and cognition by creating an illusion in which balls 'magically' appear and disappear under the cover of opaque cups (Caffaratti, 2017;Kuhn & Martinez, 2012). ...
The use of magic effects in comparative cognition provides a powerful tool to investigate how diverse species perceive the world around them, by focusing on their shared psychological constraints rather than their cognitive prowess. In this thesis I explore how humans and non-human animals experience these techniques, and some of the nuances moderating this experience. After introducing the Science of Magic and proposing magic as a tool to investigate cognition in non-human animals in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 explore how multifaceted is the human experience of magic effects. In Chapter 2, I demonstrate how experience deceiving others using similar techniques moderate the expectations necessary to be misled by these effects, as expert magicians do not display the same biases when observing sleight of hand effects than typical observers. Chapter 3 shows how the order in which magic effects are presented within a routine moderate how the human audience will perceive the skill of the magician performing it. As a first step towards creating a Comparative Science of Magic, Chapter 4 reviews the similarities and differences in how both human and non-human audiences experience magic effects, evaluates the evolution of the craft by reviewing the deception tactics of non-human animals, and offers insight into the use of magic effects in the lab by reviewing potential candidates for such an endeavour. Chapter 5 takes inspiration from a well-known magic effect and uses it to investigate how Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) experience illusions. Eurasian jays are sensitive to similar illusions that humans are, and this sensitivity is moderated by different nuances such as the type of effect (i.e., either negative or positive), or the social status of the avian observer. Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 provide comparisons of how diverse species with dissimilar anatomies and visual systems experience methodologically distinct sleight of hand effects. Both chapters provide evidence that anatomical ability and experience performing an action moderate how the pantomime movement of this action will be perceived. Alongside this, all species tested experienced the effect capitalising on fast motions similarly to each other regardless of their significant differences in their visual system, thus suggesting a convergently evolved blind spot or a product of common decent. Finally, Chapter 8 summarises the findings of this thesis and discusses the implications for the evolution of these nuances. Overall, the evidence presented in this thesis further reinforces the power and insight that using magic effects in psychology can apport in reference to the innerworkings and evolution of the human and the non-human mind.
... The art of magic is a subject that is more and more often undertaken by researchers in the field of psychology. Much research concerns experimental and cognitive psychology, focusing on the perception of movements used in magic shows (Binet, 1894;Kuhn & Martinez, 2012), the role of Gestalt psychology principles in magical effects (Barnhart, 2010), or the power of suggestion (Wiseman & Greening, 2005). The literature and research suggest that illusionists uniquely manipulate attention and use techniques related to the distraction of attention and social cues (Kuhn & Martinez, 2012;Kuhn, Tatler & Cole, 2009). ...
... Much research concerns experimental and cognitive psychology, focusing on the perception of movements used in magic shows (Binet, 1894;Kuhn & Martinez, 2012), the role of Gestalt psychology principles in magical effects (Barnhart, 2010), or the power of suggestion (Wiseman & Greening, 2005). The literature and research suggest that illusionists uniquely manipulate attention and use techniques related to the distraction of attention and social cues (Kuhn & Martinez, 2012;Kuhn, Tatler & Cole, 2009). Ekroll et al. (2021) showed that the illusion of absence during a magic show may resemble psychological processes during car accidents. ...
Aim The study aimed to check how the Big Five personality traits relate to mindfulness levels in FISM World Champions of Magic. Method The participants were champions of magic (N = 50) from 20 countries. International Personality Item Pool Big Five Markers 50 (IPIP-BFM-50) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) were used to measure personality traits and mindfulness, respectively. Results The regression analysis revealed that emotional stability and conscientiousness explained 47% of mindfulness in champion magicians. Conclusion Only two personality traits predicted mindfulness in magicians, which should be interpreted as a preliminary result.
... In our study, the abdomen may have been used as a stable visual anchor due to its central location on the body; supporting the idea that high-skilled performance are more effective at identifying the optimal anchor point for processing information (Alder, Ford, Causer, & Williams, 2014;Mann, Causer, Nakamoto, & Runswick, 2019;Wu et al., 2013). By inference, signals used to deceive an opponent likely involve the manipulation of multiple sources to create misleading relational information (Kuhn & Findlay, 2010;Kuhn & Martinez, 2012). ...
High-skilled and recreational rugby players were placed in a semi-immersive CAREN Lab environment to examine susceptibility to, and detection of, deception. To achieve this, a broad window of seven occlusion times was used in which participants responded to life-size video clips of an opposing player ‘cutting’ left or right, with or without a deceptive sidestep. Participants made full-body responses to ‘intercept’ the player and gave a verbal judgement of the opponent's final running direction. Response kinematic and kinetic data were recorded using three-dimensional motion capture cameras and force plates, respectively. Based on response accuracy, the results were separated into deception susceptibility and deception detection windows then signal detection analysis was used to calculate indices of discriminability between genuine and deceptive actions (d’) and judgement bias (c). Analysis revealed that high-skilled and low-skilled players were similarly susceptible to deception; however, high-skilled players detected deception earlier in the action sequence, which enabled them to make more effective behavioural responses to deceptive actions.
... Here, we apply a magical framework, an adapted version of cups-and-balls, 1 to investigate whether observing Eurasian jays, Garrulus glandarius, are sensitive to cognitive illusions. The cups-and-balls routine is typically described as a cognitive illusion [41] because it is used to manipulate human perception and cognition by creating an illusion in which balls 'magically' appear and disappear under the cover of opaque cups [42,43]. In humans, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this wellknown illusion have been extensively studied by psychologists who have aimed at disentangling the epicentral elements of the experience [41,43,44]. ...
Jays hide food caches, steal them from conspecifics and use tactics to minimize cache theft. Jays are sensitive to the content of their own caches, retrieving items depending on their preferences and the perishability of the cached item. Whether jays impose the same content sensitivity when they steal caches is less clear. We adapted the 'cups-and-balls' magic routine, creating a cognitive illusion to test whether jays are sensitive to the (i) content of hidden items and (ii) type of displacement. Subjects were presented with two conditions in which hidden food was consistent with their expectations; and two conditions in which food was manipulated to violate their expectations by switching their second preferred food for their preferred food (up-value) or vice versa (de-value). Subjects readily accepted food when it was consistent with their expectations but were more likely to re-inspect the baited cup and alternative cup when their expectations were violated. In the devalue condition, jays exhibited longer latencies to consume the food and often rejected it. Dominant subjects were more likely to reject the food, suggesting that social factors influence their responses to cognitive illusions. Using cognitive illusions offers innovative avenues for investigating the psychological constraints in diverse animal minds.
... The analysis of literature shows a new trend in psychology, focusing on the possibilities arising from research on artists of the art of illusion, cognitive analysis of the art of magic, and the perception of magic tricks by the audience. Current studies show the distraction mechanisms used in the art of illusion (Kuhn & Martinez, 2012), neurocognitive explanation of tricks (Macknik & Martinez-Conde, 2010), social relations of magicians (Rissanen et. al., 2010) or relations between health, well-being and learning magic tricks (Bagienski & Kuhn, 2019;Wiseman & Watt, 2018). ...
Performing as an illusionist requires having adequate internal and personality resources. They determine the success of stage performance and have an impact on how an individual perceives self, and influence to self-esteem. The aim of the article is to determine how ego-resiliency, self-efficacy and optimism influence self-esteem. A group of 50 top world magicians - World Champions of Magic - took part in research. The participants were surveyed using the Self-Esteem Scale (SES), the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), the Ego-Resiliency Scale (ER11) and the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R). Results showed positive, statistically significant correlations between self-esteem and: self-efficacy, ego-resiliency dimensions and positive life orientation. Moreover, stepwise regression analysis allowed determining predictors of self-esteem, where the strongest one was optimism.
... Misdirection has been extensively investigated, described and classified in the past (e.g. Lamont and Wiseman, 1999;Kuhn et al., 2008Kuhn et al., , 2014Macknik et al., 2008;Kuhn and Martinez, 2012;Quiroga, 2016), yet there is no real consensus about what this concept exactly describes. Here, we will follow a rather broad understanding of misdirection and describe it as "that which directs the audience towards the effect and away from the method" (Lamont and Wiseman, 1999, cf. ...
... Below, we present examples of the three types of misdirection in the context of Bayesian inference. Please note that most of these misdirection methods and examples have been described elsewhere in greater detail (Lamont and Wiseman, 1999;Kuhn et al., 2008Kuhn et al., , 2014Macknik et al., 2008;Kuhn and Martinez, 2012;Quiroga, 2016). ...
Magic tricks have enjoyed an increasing interest by scientists. However, most research in magic focused on isolated aspects of it and a conceptual understanding of magic, encompassing its distinct components and varieties, is missing. Here, we present an account of magic within the theory of Bayesian predictive coding. We present the “wow” effect of magic as an increase in surprise evoked by the prediction error between expected and observed data. We take into account prior knowledge of the observer, attention, and (mis-)direction of perception and beliefs by the magician to bias the observer’s predictions and present a simple example for the modelling of the evoked surprise. The role of misdirection is described as everything that aims to maximize the surprise a trick evokes by the generation of novel beliefs, the exploitation of background knowledge and attentional control of the incoming information. Understanding magic within Bayesian predictive coding allows unifying all aspects of magic tricks within one framework, making it tractable, comparable and unifiable with other models in psychology and neuroscience.
... By inference, the deceptive signals deployed to convey false intent are likely to involve manipulation of multiple sources to convey misleading relational information (Kuhn & Martinez, 2012). In order to specify the information that causes deception, as well as that which is used to detect deception, researchers should systematically manipulate the information available using techniques such as spatial occlusion (Jackson & Mogan, 2007;Loffing & Hagemann, 2014) and manipulation of kinematics (e.g., Helm, Cañal-Bruland, Mann, Troje & Munzert, 2020;Smeeton & Huys, 2011). ...
An extended time window was used to examine susceptibility to, and detection of, deception in rugby union. High-and low-skilled rugby players judged the final running direction of an opponent "cutting" left or right, with or without a deceptive sidestep. Each trial was occluded at one of eight time points relative to the footfall after the initial (genuine or fake) reorientation. Based on response accuracy, the results were separated into deception susceptibility and deception detection windows. Signal-detection analysis was used to calculate the discriminability of genuine and deceptive actions (d') and the response bias (c). High-skilled players were less susceptible to deception and better able to detect when they had been deceived, accompanied by a reduced bias toward perceiving all actions as genuine. By establishing the time window in which players become deceived, it will now be possible to identify the kinematic sources that drive deception.
