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Hierarchies of knowledge represent a popular formalism for conceptualizing beliefs, justifications, and truth statements. To capitalize on the opportunity for formulating effective maps of design knowledge, this article introduces the hierarchical context–design development–high-level (CDH) model that stratifies different bodies of design-specific...
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Context 1
... on the considerations in the previous section, we introduce a hierarchical model of design knowledge (Figure 1), which organizes the aforementioned BDKs into an overarching structure. We hereby name it CDH hierarchy, based on the initial letters of its three main levels: context, design state, and high-level design knowledge. ...
Context 2
... middle level contains knowledge about design states, which from a knowledge-centric viewpoint of design can be understood as embodied knowledge (Cross, 2001;Stolterman and Wiberg, 2010), the thinking embodied in an artifact (Frayling, 1993), or objects that contain knowledge of what the product should be (Cross, 1999). As shown in Figure 1, we classify design development knowledge into the following three sub-levels commonly encountered in the literature and practice (see e.g. Pahl and Beitz, 2007): ...
Context 3
... include theories associated with architectural and urban design ( Mahy et al., 1987) and interaction design (Carroll, 2003), and those at the intersection of architecture and psychology (Gibson, 1976). In addition to the bodies of high-level design knowledge listed above (as shown in Figure 1), other BDKs might presumably be added to the topmost tier of the CDH model in the future. For example, relatively low-level "design recommendations" (Mariage et al., 2005) may be considered as a sub-type of design guidelines. ...
Context 4
... reiterate, however, that higher-level design knowledge can be best developed, refined, and validated with the designer having successfully completed multiple design projects beforehand, namely when the designer or design researcher has accumulated substantial personal experience in developing design states, as well as in researching associated design contexts. This implies yet another temporal dimension to the static CDH model shown in Figure 1, and which we intend to address in future work. ...
Citations
... The notion of "design knowledge " has been extensively researched in the design and HCI literature, broadly defining what constitutes design knowledge (e.g., patterns of reflection [ 50 ], ontologies [ 165 ]), levels of instigation of design knowledge in design activity [ 83 , 109 ], and different types of design knowledge [ 114 , 115 ]. For the purpose of this article, we explore "methods" as a particular form of design knowledge that enables "the creation of design states" [ 109 ] that support and advance a designer's capability [ 115 ], building upon decades of interest in identifying key aspects of design cognition and the support of design work through methods (e.g., References [ 21 , 104 , 134 ]). We draw on the definition given by Stolterman and colleagues [ 152 ] of design methods as "tools, techniques, and approaches that support design activity in [a] way that is appreciated by practicing interaction designers," and Gray's [ 88 ] definition that describes design methods as "tool[s] that allow designers to support thinking, reflecting and acting upon design activities." ...
Over the past decade, HCI researchers and practitioners have increasingly addressed ethics-focused issues through a range of theoretical, methodological, and pragmatic contributions to the field. While many forms of design knowledge have been proposed and described, we focus explicitly on knowledge that has been codified as “methods,” which we define as structured supports for everyday work practices of designers. In this article, we identify, analyze, and map a collection of 63 existing methods intentionally designed for ethical impact. Building on results of a content analysis of these methods, we contribute a descriptive record of how these methods operationalize ethics, their intended audience or context of use, their “core” or “script,” and the means by which these methods are formulated and codified. Building on these results, we provide an initial definition of ethics-focused methods, identifying potential opportunities for the development of future methods to support ethical design practice.
... Functions hierarchical at a lower level cannot be decomposed further until a form is used to satisfy the function. The function hierarchy reveals the disposition of design knowledge at different levels (Kolaric, Beck & Stolterman 2020). Functions at some level can even be connected with detailed information about forms, such as material characteristics, heat treatments, stresses, and so on. ...
The introduction of the drug fentanyl has increased the lethality for police officers and first responders. Having a working knowledge of how fentanyl affects the body and incorporating nanotechnology-based levels of adequate personal protective equipment (PPE) in combatting fentanyl exposure in the field.
... Combining the knowledge level of AI (Newell, 1982) and the hierarchical model of design knowledge (Kolarić et al., 2020), we adopted a differentiation approach to describe the requirements for mastery of concepts in the framework, including levels of Know, Understand, and Apply. The description of the three levels is as follows: ...
... Second, the framework ranks the concepts in terms of Know, Understand, and Apply, instead of simply listing all concepts or guidelines as prior work did (Amershi et al., 2019). Taking advantage of the knowledge level (Kolarić et al., 2020), the ranked framework helps designers focus on critical concepts and reduce cognitive loading difficulties. Third, following the contiguity principle, we integrate the usage of tools into the design process. ...
With the increasing utilization of machine learning (ML) to enhance products’ capabilities, the design research community has begun to explore how to support the conceptual design of ML-enhanced products. However, UX value creation of ML-enhanced products is still challenging because of ML's unique characteristics and numerous complex factors in conceptual design. To help designers create UX value for ML-enhanced products, we developed the UX value framework and the CoMLUX design process. The proposed framework describes how ML, stakeholders, and context co-create the UX value of ML-enhanced products, and identifies the growability and opacity of ML, helping designers systematically understand the co-creators while avoiding cognitive overload. The CoMLUX design process provides practical guidance for designing ML-enhanced products with growability and transparency. At last, we demonstrate the usage methods of the framework and process in an actual project and summarize the inspirations and limitations of our work.
... The study of design cognition and designerly ways of knowing has a long history-beginning with the birth of the design methods movement in the 1960s and continuing to the present day in both discipline-specific and discipline-agnostic forms [9,10]. In the decades since, design theorists have focused their attention on numerous aspects of designerly practice, including the capacity of the designer themself [3,46,53], the sources of knowledge that designers draw upon [29,32,35], the ecological setting in which design work occurs [21,25,60], and the situated judgments they make to inform design decisions [5,15,24,26,46]-all of which inform the designed outcomes that result from their engagement (c.f., [52,63]). ...
Co-design practices have been used for decades to support participatory engagement in design work. However, despite a wide range of materials that describe the design and commitments of numerous co-design experiences, few descriptions of the knowledge that guides designers when creating these experiences exist. Thus, we ask: What kind of knowledge do designers need to design co-design experiences? What form(s) could intermediate-level knowledge for co-design take? To answer these questions, we adopted a co/auto-ethnographic and Research-through-Design approach to reflexively engage with our design decisions, outcomes, and challenges related to two virtual co-design workshops. We constructed a set of four multi-dimensional facets(Rhythms of Engagement, Material Engagement, Ludic Engagement, and Conceptual Achievement) and three roles (designer, researcher, facilitator) to consider when creating co-design experiences. We illustrate these facets and roles through examples, building new \textit{intermediate-level knowledge} to support future co-design research and design, framing co-design as a designerly practice.
... The IDEA audit is developed with a scalable and flexible approach to allow for a widespread use in different settings [18] and is structured according to hierarchical levels [62] with 3 major subjects, 8 topics, 26 themes, 59 sub-themes and 106 statements (Image 3). ...
Notwithstanding the increased number of regulations there is a general lack of awareness about Inclusive Design among building industry professionals. This is partly due to the scarcity of available tools to evaluate occupancy feedback on inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility. How can we implement a tool to evaluate occupancy feedback on inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility that works for the building industry? This study aims to inform the development of a post-occupancy method to evaluate Inclusion, Diversity, Equity and Accessibility (IDEA) in the built environment. This article reports the results of a multifaceted Delphi study which culminated with co-designing the IDEA audit, a post-occupancy evaluation method to collect data on people's perceptions of inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility. With the IDEA audit, researchers, building owners, design teams, developers, facility managers, tenants, and organisation leaders can achieve a baseline of understanding of what people feel in regard to inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility, clearly identify pockets of inconsistency and use data to decide how to address challenges and points of exclusion.
... Due to the limitations of data collection for this paper, we cannot explicitly draw the sequence or process of the creation of the method through post-hoc recall of our interview participants. Instead, we have chosen to focus on the constraints that the MD used or considered, the precedent materials they built upon or consumed (Gray, 2020), the primary generators they cultivated (Darke, 1979), the design knowledge they used or relied upon (Kolari c et al., 2020;Goodman, Stolterman, & Wakkary, 2011), and the desiderata that guided their intentions for the method (Nelson & Stolterman, 2012). These concepts are described in additional detail in Section 4. ...
Numerous methods have been designed to aid practitioners in identifying ethical concerns, imagining potential futures, defining values, and evaluating existing systems. However, there is little scholarship that addresses the design of these methods, including how ethical concerns are operationalized in these methods. In this paper, we report results of an interview study with thirteen ethics-focused method designers, investigating their process of instigating, creating, and disseminating their method. We conducted a top-down thematic analysis using the Biskjaer and Halskov framework of decisive constraints, identifying intrinsic, extrinsic, and self-imposed constraints alongside iterative and evaluative resonance-seeking activities. This analysis provides a rich conceptual vocabulary to better describe the design of methods for ethical impact from the perspective of researchers and practitioners.
... The notion of "design knowledge" has been extensively researched in the design and HCI literature, broadly defining what constitutes design knowledge (e.g., patterns of reflection [43], ontologies [145]), levels of instigation of design knowledge in design activity [76,99], and different types of design knowledge [104,105]. For the purpose of this paper, we explore "methods" as a particular form of design knowledge that enables "the creation of design states" [99] that support and advance a designer's capability [105]. ...
... The notion of "design knowledge" has been extensively researched in the design and HCI literature, broadly defining what constitutes design knowledge (e.g., patterns of reflection [43], ontologies [145]), levels of instigation of design knowledge in design activity [76,99], and different types of design knowledge [104,105]. For the purpose of this paper, we explore "methods" as a particular form of design knowledge that enables "the creation of design states" [99] that support and advance a designer's capability [105]. We draw on the definition given by Stolterman and colleagues [136] of design methods as "tools, techniques, and approaches that support design activity in [a] way that is appreciated by practicing interaction designers," and Gray's [81] definition that describes design methods as "tool[s] that allow designers to support thinking, reflecting and acting upon design activities." ...
Over the past decade, HCI researchers, design researchers, and practitioners have increasingly addressed ethics-focused issues through a range of theoretical, methodological and pragmatic contributions to the field. While many forms of design knowledge have been proposed and described, we focus explicitly on knowledge that has been codified as "methods," which we define as any supports for everyday work practices of designers. In this paper, we identify, analyze, and map a collection of 63 existing ethics-focused methods intentionally designed for ethical impact. We present a content analysis, providing a descriptive record of how they operationalize ethics, their intended audience or context of use, their "core" or "script," and the means by which these methods are formulated, articulated, and languaged. Building on these results, we provide an initial definition of ethics-focused methods, identifying potential opportunities for the development of future methods to support design practice and research.
... However, recent design scholarship in human-computer interaction (HCI) and related disciplines has engaged more deeply with the epistemological dimensions of design knowledge, with specific proposals to more deeply investigate situational design knowledge (Rasmussen et al., 2019), identify how design knowledge is expressed and structured in online conversations among designers (Gray & Kou, 2019, articulate different forms of "intermediate-level knowledge" FIGURE 1. Google Images search of "type specimen books, " revealing forms of visually-focused precedent common in other design fields. that exist between theory and concrete artifacts (Höök et al., 2015;Höök & Löwgren, 2012;Löwgren, 2013), and potential hierarchies of design knowledge (Kolarić et al., 2020). ...
The generation and description of design precedent is at the core of design case scholarship. However, traditional standards of quality and rigor that are relevant for other types of design and scientific scholarship do not always apply equally to the generation of design cases. In this paper, I describe the nature of design precedent and the standards for evaluating precedent artifacts in a way that foregrounds access of the reader to aspects of design complexity in the design work being described. Standards of quality point towards theappropriateness and potential contribution of the precedent material to design knowledge, across the following dimensions: interest to other designers; rich representation of the design; articulation of transparency and failure; accessibility of style; and acknowledgement of complexity and scope.
