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A listening experiment was conducted to examine whether untrained listeners can discriminate up to 12dB of compression limiting above chance levels. Forty-nine participants completed an ABX listening experiment and a musical engagement questionnaire. The experimental results demonstrate that untrained listeners cannot discriminate up to 12dB of com...
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Citations
... The results showed that the mastering engineers found it challenging to discern differences between a number of the audio tracks, particularly those with −8 dB of gain reduction and the unprocessed reference. The same experiment carried out by Ronan et al. [12] used untrained listeners and showed that they were unable to detect up to 12 dB of limiting. ...
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The current study will be of interest to designers of professional audio software and hardware devices as it will allow them to design their tools to increase or diminish the sonic character discussed in the paper. In addition, it will benefit professional audio engineers due to its potential to speed up their workflow.
Abstract
In popular music productions, the lead vocal is often the main focus of the mix and engineers will work to impart creative colouration onto this source. This paper conducts listening experiments to test if there is a correlation between perceived distortion and the descriptor “aggressive”, which is often used to describe the sonic signature of Universal Audio 1176, a much-used dynamic range compressor in professional music production. The results from this study show compression settings that impart audible distortion are perceived as aggressive by the listener, and there is a strong correlation between the subjective listener scores for distorted and aggressive. Additionally, it was shown there is a strong correlation between compression settings rated with high aggressive scores and the audio feature roughness.
... The results of a recent ABX experiment suggest that untrained listeners are unable to perceive sound quality artifacts generated by Crest Factor (CF) reductions of up to 10 dB and that this is a primary factor supporting the persistence of hyper-compression [19]. Ronan suggests that the prevalence of hyper-compressed music during the loudness wars has altered listeners' concept of sound quality thus further encouraging the practice in spite of the introduction of loudness normalization [20]. ...
... The study presented in this paper investigates the audibility of hyper-compression to mastering engineers via an ABX listening experiment. The results are then compared with those from an identical experiment using untrained listeners [19]. The CF, inter-channel cross-correlation, interaural cross correlation, and key strength of 2-channel stereo samples are examined to determine whether these waveform characteristics are salient perceptual cues determining the audibility of hyper-compression artifacts. ...
... The two samples of program material were identical to those used in a previous listening experiment with untrained listeners [19] and were selected to facilitate direct comparison between experiments. Both samples were under five seconds in length and originated from Tom Waits (TW) Table 2). ...
Hyper-compressed popular music is the product of a behavior associated with the over-use of dynamic range processing in an effort to gain a competitive advantage in music production. This behavior is unnecessary given the introduction of loudness normalization algorithms across the industry and has been denounced by mastering engineers as generating audible sound quality artifacts. However, the audibility of these sound quality artifacts to mastering engineers has not been examined. This study probes this question using an ABX listening experiment with 20 mastering engineers. On average, mastering engineers correctly discriminated 17 out of 24 conditions suggesting that the sound quality artifacts generated by hyper-compression are difficult to perceive. The findings in the study suggest that audibility depends on the Crest Factor (CF) of the music rather than the amount of CF reduction thus proposing the existence of a threshold of audibility. Further work focusing on education initiatives are offered.
... In relation to dynamics processing, sound quality experts such as mastering engineers have heavily critiqued the practice of hyper-compression employed during the loudness wars (Jackson 2006) in which a digital limiter was used to maximise perceived loudness when music is auditioned using peak normalisation (Vickers 2010). However, a recent study has shown that untrained listeners in general are unable to perceive the sound quality artefacts generated by this processing (Ronan et al. 2016). This finding reinforces the notion that untrained listeners do not focus on the perceived sound quality of a music signal but rather the content. ...
Music signals broadcast from analogue radio stations incorporate substantial processing in an effort to develop a 'house sound'. This broadcast sound quality deviates significantly from the original sound source. The assumption followed is that the station's target audience prefers the resulting sound quality. However, this assumption has not been substantiated. To address this dearth of empirical evidence, a listening experiment was conducted. A monophonic sample of popular music was captured from five Irish radio stations comprising: Beat, South East Radio, Spin South West, Today FM, and 2FM. Thirty-five participants completed a full factorial two-alternative forced-choice preference test using a custom interface. Results show that the null hypothesis was rejected in five conditions. Importantly, significant differences were found between both presentation orders of the Today FM vs 2FM condition, with Today FM being preferred in each. Physical analysis of the signals indicates a significant difference in the long-term averaged frequency response between these samples. Specifically, the 2FM sample incorporates a 10dB boost between 140 and 300Hz, which is an area of the frequency range associated with a 'muddy' sound quality. These radio stations are in direct competition regarding their target audience. Listenership figures show a steep decline for 2FM over the past 5 years. While there are additional considerations affecting listenership figures, the results suggest that listeners weight analogue radio processing as a factor in integrated preference judgments.
The incorporation of electronics into the music production process has only been shaping new boundaries in the field of production. Recent decade has seen the rise of a fairly new genre called Electronic Dance Music, where music is being recorded, arranged and processed using electronic media. Certain researches have also revealed how Neural Networks are being used for automating the process of composition and production of music. This calls for a system that automates the post-production audio enhancement and optimization techniques, called Mastering, in order to attain a balance in the sound quality and make this procedure more robust. To do the same, we make use of Fast Fourier Transform Techniques, Unsupervised Learning and Neural Networks. The chief principle behind the processing of any audio is to provide a sophisticated mechanism to enhance the extracted acoustic characteristics of the signal. The evaluation indices of an optimized or mastered audio, via human listening test, to showcase the power of Artificial Intelligence and how it can be used as a constraint optimization model to optimize playback of the stereo mix.
In 1995, an unusually perforated femur of a juvenile cave bear was found in the Divje babe I Palaeolithic cave site in Slovenia. The supposition that it could be a flute led to heated debates. According to its archaeological context and chronostratigraphic position, if made by humans, it could only be attributed to Neanderthals. The crucial question was related to the origin of the holes. These could only have been made either by a carnivore or by human intervention. Results of experimental testing of both hypotheses do not support a carnivore origin of the holes. Furthermore, the method of artificial creation of the holes, which left no conventional traces of manufacture, was defined. Computed tomography revealed traces, which could be the result of human agency and called into serious question the origin of some features previously declared to be solely of carnivore origin. Recent musical experiments performed on a replica of the reconstructed musical instrument revealed its great musical capability. Together with some other findings from Divje babe I, the Mousterian musical instrument offers a unique insight into the Neanderthals’ symbolic behaviour and their cognitive abilities. The multidisciplinary results of comprehensive analyses of this exceptional find are first presented here together with its chronostratigraphic, palaeo-environmental, and archaeological contexts.
