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Synthetic hydrogeological map indicating the location and type of the main water sowing and harvesting (WS&H) systems in South America, Central America and the Iberian Peninsula (Modified from BGR-UNESCO, 2008 and Martos-Rosillo et al. 2020 ).
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Water sowing and harvesting (WS&H), a term adopted from Latin America, is an ancestral process that involves gathering and infiltration (sowing) of rainwater, surface runoff, and groundwater to recover it (harvesting) later and/or elsewhere. The WS&H systems follow the approaches of integrated water resource management, nature-based solutions and t...
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... this manner, it is possible to retain water in the aquifers to use it during the dry periods for irrigation, domestic uses, drinking troughs, etc. ( Barberá et al., 2018 ;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019Ochoa-Tocachi et al., 2019 ;Yapa, 2013Yapa, , 2016. For instance, in Latin America and in the Iberian Peninsula there are several sites applying WS&H systems with well documented evidence ( Fig. 1 ). ...
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... However, the ultimate goal remains the same: to store water for long periods to ensure its availability in dry seasons. Albarracín et al. (2021) analyzed the advantages of water sowing and harvesting practices in Andean watersheds in southern Ecuador, particularly in cochas, as small artificial water sources; validating the importance and efficiency of these systems to mitigate the effects of drought. They also emphasized the fundamental role of community practices in the recovery of these ancestral systems, which not only improve water quality, but also the water resilience of local communities. ...
Human pressures and global change are threatening water resources. Circumstances vary in each location; therefore, finding solutions that address local issues helps achieve comprehensive water management strategies. In the Andean basins, the pre-Inca cultures used nature-based water management techniques to deal with the dry seasons. This knowledge and these techniques have been recognized as a strategy to increase water security. Additionally, they have been unconsciously applied to improve hydrological conditions in areas affected by extreme land-use changes. Water sowing and harvesting techniques have been used to manage territories dedicated to livestock and agriculture. This research evaluates three traditional infiltration ditch systems on two types of land use (páramo and cultivated pastures) in the Andean region of Azuay (Ecuador). The objective was to establish the potential for better management of water resources in dry seasons. Eosin-traced water diverted through channels or ditches, infiltrated into the soil, was retained for an average of 31 days in the páramo soil and from 90 to 111 days in the cultivated pasture soil. Controlled water infiltration contributes to effective water management by retaining water in the soil for extended periods. We conclude that nature-based systems perform better on soils with higher water retention capacity. These techniques are suitable for managing water in areas where land changes have reduced water storage potential.
... La Reserva es uno de los principales destinos turísticos del cantón de Paltas (Ramón & Solano, 2009;López & Gil, 2017;Encalada et al., 2019;Paladines, 2019;Díaz et al., 2021;Lopéz et al., 2021), sin embargo, aún existe una carencia de información detallada sobre flora. Esta situación representa una oportunidad para desarrollar nuevas líneas de investigación, y de esta manera, contribuir a la protección de la rica biodiversidad que alberga dicha área protegida (Baquero et al., 2004;Albarracín et al., 2021). ...
La Reserva es uno de los principales destinos turísticos del cantón de Paltas, sin embargo, aún existe una carencia de información detallada sobre flora. Esta situación representa una oportunidad para desarrollar nuevas líneas de investigación, y de esta manera, contribuir a la protección de la rica biodiversidad. Los briófitos y líquenes son elementos característicos de bosques montanos, bosques secos, bosques amazónicos, matorrales y páramos de Ecuador y se han utilizado como indicadores de cambios ambientales. Por lo tanto, el objetivo fue describir la diversidad de briófitos y líquenes epífitos de la Reserva Pisaca del Cantón Paltas, la cual servirá de apoyo para la toma de decisiones relacionadas con el manejo y la conservación de estos pequeños refugios de biodiversidad. Se presentó el primer reporte de líquenes y briófitos (94 especies), distribuidas en 66 líquenes y 28 briófitos en tres zonas lo que demuestra que la reserve Pisaca funciona como refugio de la biodiversidad.
... In Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula, rescuing the ancestral knowledge of aquifer recharge through Nature-based Solutions (NbSs) [58] is called Water Sowing and Harvesting (WS&H) [59,60]. According to Martos-Rosillo et al. [11], WS&H is a process through which rainwater is captured through infrastructures based on ancestral knowledge (planting when it rains) and later used through springs, wells, and drainage galleries (harvesting water during droughts). ...
... In Ecuador, different WS&H techniques have been applied, mainly in rural areas of the coastal, Andean, and insular regions. In the coastal region, artificial wetlands (qochas or cochas in Quechua, albarradas in Spanish) stand out as do tapes (dykes) [11,60] (e.g., dykes-tapes in the Manglaralto aquifer in the Santa Elena Province [67]). In the Andean region, artificial infiltration ponds known as high-altitude wetlands are used [68] (e.g., the Magdalena lagoon in the Altillo Lake complex of the Sangay National Park, Chimborazo [69]). ...
... Furthermore, WS&H techniques demonstrate their significance as tools for mitigating the effects of climate change, strengthening ecosystems, and guaranteeing social well-being. In Ecuador, there are two main uses of WS&H: (i) the use of water for human consumption activities, mainly in the coastal region [80,99]; and (ii) the development and strengthening of agricultural production for communities with low economic resources, generally in the Andean region [60]. For different regions, the applied techniques were adapted to the characteristics of the terrain and the needs of the inhabitants. ...
Water Sowing and Harvesting (WS&H) is an ancestral knowledge widely used as a sustainable technique in water management. This study aims to analyse the importance, promotion, and cultural heritage of WS&H techniques through a literature review in Ecuador, considering applications of ancestral techniques by region (coastal, Andean and insular) with a strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats (SWOTs) analysis and a focus group for a strategy proposal of the water supply. The methodology of this study includes the following: (i) an analysis of the evolution of WS&H studies in Ecuador; (ii) a presentation of WS&H techniques and their applications; and (iii) the contribution of WS&H to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), complemented by a SWOTs analysis. The results show that, in Ecuador, WS&H is a method of Nature-based Solutions (NbSs) applied to the problems of water scarcity and is affordable, ecological, and has high efficiency, improving agricultural productivity and guaranteeing water supply for human consumption. The Manglaralto coastal aquifer, a case study in the coastal region of Ecuador, involves WS&H management and artificial aquifer recharge. WS&H structures became a reference for the sustainable development of rural communities that can be replicated nationally and internationally as a resilient alternative to water scarcity and a global climate emergency, contributing to the SDGs of UNESCO.
... Transverse ditches filled with gravel and sand can be used to effectively increase soil moisture [77]. To improve the sustainability of a watershed, it is essential to identify aspects such as the water quantity and quality, species, ecosystems, resilience to climate change, and local culture [78,79]. Ecological management aimed at improving the quality of land use involves the transformation of grasslands into forests. ...
In this study, we performed a preliminary soil analysis and collected environmental data for the Dulcepamba River Basin in Bolivar-Ecuador, before carrying out its hydrological restoration (HR). A geographic information system (GIS) and the multicriterion Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) decision-making method were used. The comprehensive evaluation included morphological aspects, soil properties, climatic conditions, vegetation, and land use. The terrain conditions were investigated using indicators such as the flow capacity, topographic moisture, soil resistance, sediment transport, current density, curve number, NDVI, precipitation, and distance to rivers. The results and analysis are presented in a series of maps, which establish a starting point for the HR of the Dulcepamba watershed. The key factors for assessing soil degradation in the watershed include land use, vegetation cover, sedimentation, humidity, and precipitation. Of the studied territory, 10.7 do not require HR, while 20.28% demand HR in the long term. In addition, 30.67% require HR in the short term, and 33.35% require HR immediately. Based on the findings, it is suggested that authorities consider the environmental remediation of the watershed and propose various HR measures. This analytical approach could prove valuable as a tool for the environmental restoration of watersheds in Ecuador.
... Rainwater harvesting is not a new solution. Term "Water Sowing and Harvesting" was adopted from Latin America, where it involved gathering and infiltration (sowing) of rainwater, surface runoff, and groundwater to recover (harvesting) it later (Albarracín et al. 2021). This approach based on integrated water resources management and nature based solutions for water retention in aquifers. ...
Water scarcity and climate change led to changes in water management, especially in urban areas. RainWater Harvesting (RWH) is a promising technique that allows the collection and reuse of rainwater, as well as protecting sewage systems from overload. This article reviews the current state of RWH in Europe, including advantages, implementation, potential efficiency, usage requirements, quality, and treatment processes. The main findings include the importance of RWH as a sustainable water management technique, the historical background and renewed interest in RWH systems in recent years, the positive impact of RWH on reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, the versatility of rainwater usage, and the potential cost savings and benefits in various regions. RWH systems are gaining popularity in Europe, particularly in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Climate change and precipitation patterns affect rainwater availability and quality. RWH can be used for various purposes, including drinking, but requires proper purification for health safety. It is also being implemented in new locations like airports and large buildings. RWH systems have a high potential to overcome undesired results of climate change. Among that, numerous aspects still need to be considered in the future that allow the application of RWH systems on a larger scale.
... The NbS in the study aims to intercept the stream that flows through the ravine in areas where the natural stagnation of water is limited but which, in turn, are close enough to the aquifer so that the water can infiltrate and recharge it. This practice is similar to other places where hydrophilic vegetation proliferates, such as the bofedales of the Andes (e.g., Chile [101]) or the borregales of Sierra Nevada (Spain), where the "camellones" were built as networks of canals or ditches, to promote the growth of this type of vegetation and improve the water regulation capacity of the land [102]. The application of this NbS system allows the water to flow more slowly downstream, allowing its infiltration towards the subsoil [34]. ...
The present study aims to elaborate a hydrogeological characterisation in the Water Sowing and Harvesting context. The study is focused on rural parishes in the Ecuadorian Andes that, despite their proximity to snow sources (Chimborazo glaciers), need more supply of this resource, to satisfy the demand of a population of 70,466 inhabitants. The study is based on hydrology and geomorphological analysis, a geophysical exploration, and a definition of water management strategies. The application of non-destructive geophysical methods and Geographic Information Systems support the hydrogeological study and the proposal of strategies for sustainable water management on the slopes of the Chimborazo volcano. An aquifer potential was identified (sand, gravel and fractured porphyritic andesites) with resistivity values between 51.3 and 157 Ω m at an approximate depth of 30 m from the geophysical characterisation addressed. This potential saturated zone is on the southern slope of the Chimborazo volcano within the hydrographic watershed, with favourable drainage networks for water accumulation. The aquifer shows a high-water saturation level but uncontrolled losses. As a consequence of these characteristics, alternatives for managing water resources are proposed, such as wells construction, using Water Sowing and Harvesting system methods (“camellones”) based on Nature-Based Solutions, dam construction and environmental education. The different proposals are associated with the four sustainability axes of Brundtland (economic, social, environmental and cultural axis) and contribute to the sixth objective of the Sustainable Development Goal 2030 Agenda.
... Such practices aim to ensure sustainable access to water resources in times of low availability and high demand caused by climate and social changes [8,9]. Besides, these practices boost biodiversity conservation [10][11][12][13][14] and the recognition of rural communities' cultural identity and role as custodians of the land [11,15,16]. However, the functioning of many of these water management systems is threatened by globalization and or concentration in urban areas into which people are forced to migrate from rural communities. ...
... Such practices aim to ensure sustainable access to water resources in times of low availability and high demand caused by climate and social changes [8,9]. Besides, these practices boost biodiversity conservation [10][11][12][13][14] and the recognition of rural communities' cultural identity and role as custodians of the land [11,15,16]. However, the functioning of many of these water management systems is threatened by globalization and or concentration in urban areas into which people are forced to migrate from rural communities. ...
Nature-Based Solutions for Integrated Water Resources Management (NbS-IWRM) involve natural, or nature-mimicking, processes used to improve water availability in quantity and quality sustainably, reduce the risks of water-related disasters, enhance adaptation to climate change and increase both biodiversity and the social-ecological system's resilience. United Nations and the European Commission promote their research as a cornerstone in the changeover to the Ecological Transition. In the Sierra Nevada range (Spain) and the Andean Cordillera, there is a par-adigmatic and ancestral example of NbS-IWRM known as "careo channels" and "amunas", respectively. They recharge slope aquifers in mountain areas and consist of an extensive network of channels that infiltrate the runoff water generated during the snow-thawing and rainy season into the upper parts of the slopes. The passage of water through the aquifers in the slope is used to regulate the water resources of the mountain areas and thus ensure the duration of water availability for the downstream local population and generate multiple ecosystem services. This form of water management is known as Water Sowing and Harvesting (WS&H). As shown in this work, it is a living example of a resilience and climate change adaptation tool that can be qualified as a nature-based solution.
... Ancestral experience led to the identification of highly permeable areas, where a significant fraction of the annual runoff is stored temporally to eventually be used in springs or as a river flow. This natural solution for intra-annual water regulation substitutes the construction of dams and conveyance conduits to supply downstream users (Ozment et al., 2015), thus it is a paradigm of the "water sowing and harvesting" notion Albarracín et al., 2021). Finally, the steep slope and unaltered hard rock outcropping on the east side of the watersheds along the south face of Sierra Nevada renders acequias de careo ineffective there but not for transfer to the western sides of neighbouring watersheds (González-Ramón et al., 2015;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2019a). ...
CONTEXT: In the Middle Ages, the Muslims introduced communal water management in the Iberian Peninsula. Some irrigation systems of medieval origin are still in operation in the mountainous areas of Southern Spain. Snowmelt runoff is diverted during spring from high-altitude streams into contoured recharge ditches that convey the water to areas of high infiltration (shallow aquifers). This regulates and delays discharge into the main river, from which downstream flow is diverted, during late spring and summer, to irrigation ditches that supply terraces and fields on river plains. The Busquístar irrigation ditch and its irrigation scheme comprise one of these ancient systems.
OBJECTIVES: 1) To characterize the Busquístar system, its water source and regulation, its water users' association, its multi-functionality, and its quality as a nature-based solution for water security. 2) To review the irrigation efficiency concept applied to the restoration of ancient irrigation systems, taking into account their ecosystem services.
METHODS: i) Semi-structured interviews with stakeholders to evaluate irrigation system operation and perceptions of multi-functionality; ii) field surveys for description of the irrigation ditch and its riparian flora; iii) satellite imagery for quantifying riparian vegetation; iv) water balance for irrigation efficiency computation.
... Another good example of WSHS is the cocha or albarrada in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. These are ponds of low crest heights built for water infiltration, which is enhanced by using earth construction materials (MINAGRI, 2016;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020;Albarracín et al., 2021). Similar to cochas, but smaller, are Peru's cuchacuchas, infiltrating ponds with diameters ranging between 2 and 15 m (Yapa, 2016). ...
... Apart from these WSHS, numerous Andean high-altitude wetlands known as bofedales are watered and expanded by constructing ditch networks to irrigate pastures and infiltrate water . Downstream of all these WSHS, biodiversity is boosted; even species suited for more humid conditions flourish through the operation of these systems, allowing a diverse range of floral species with widely varying water requirements to coexist (Yapa, 2013;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020;Albarracín et al., 2021). ...
The acequias de careo are ancestral water channels excavated during the early Al-Andalus period (8th–10th centuries), which are used to recharge aquifers in the watersheds of the Sierra Nevada mountain range (Southeastern Spain). The water channels are maintained by local communities, and their main function is collecting snowmelt, but also runoff from rainfall from the headwaters of river basins and distributing it throughout the upper parts of the slopes. This method of aquifer artificial recharge extends the availability of water resources in the lowlands of the river basins during the dry season when there is almost no precipitation and water demand is higher. This study investigates the contribution of the careo channels in the watershed of Bérchules concerning the total aquifer recharge during the 2014–2015 hydrological year. Several channels were gauged, and the runoff data were compared with those obtained from a semi-distributed hydrological model applied to the same hydrological basin. The natural infiltration of meteoric waters accounted for 52% of the total recharge, while the remaining 48% corresponded to water transported and infiltrated by the careo channels. In other words, the careo recharge system enhances by 92% the natural recharge to the aquifer. Our results demonstrate the importance of this ancestral and efficient channel system for recharging slope aquifers developed in hard rocks. The acequias de careo are nature-based solutions for increasing water resources availability that have contributed to a prosperous life in the Sierra Nevada. Its long history (>1200 years) suggests that the system has remarkable resilience properties, which have allowed adaptation and permance for centuries in drastically changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions. This recharge system could also be applied to —or inspire similar adaptation measures in— semi-arid mountain areas around the world where it may help in mitigating climate change effects.
... Another good example of WSHS is the cocha or albarrada in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. These are ponds of low crest heights built for water infiltration, which is enhanced by using earth construction materials (MINAGRI, 2016;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020;Albarracín et al., 2021). Similar to cochas, but smaller, are Peru's cuchacuchas, infiltrating ponds with diameters ranging between 2 and 15 m (Yapa, 2016). ...
... Apart from these WSHS, numerous Andean high-altitude wetlands known as bofedales are watered and expanded by constructing ditch networks to irrigate pastures and infiltrate water . Downstream of all these WSHS, biodiversity is boosted; even species suited for more humid conditions flourish through the operation of these systems, allowing a diverse range of floral species with widely varying water requirements to coexist (Yapa, 2013;Martos-Rosillo et al., 2020;Albarracín et al., 2021). ...
