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Surface-level grouping is instantiated by realizing a denial of expectancy on every fourth note. Notes 1, 4 and 7 form a highly expected emergent-level structure referred to as a process. 

Surface-level grouping is instantiated by realizing a denial of expectancy on every fourth note. Notes 1, 4 and 7 form a highly expected emergent-level structure referred to as a process. 

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FOUR EXPERIMENTS ASSESSED THE INFLUENCE of emergent-level structure on melodic processing difficulty. Emergent-level structure was manipulated across experiments and defined with reference to the Implication-Realization model of melodic expectancy (Narmour, 1990, 1992, 2000). Two measures of melodic processing difficulty were used to assess the inf...

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... denials were achieved by following a small interval (three semitones or less) with a large interval (six semitones or greater). These expectancy denials occurred with temporal regularity so as to create surface-level groups of regular size with the first note of each group rising to the emergent level (see Figure 1). ...
Context 2
... to emergent-level structure became more apparent when multiple structural cues were available. The presence of familiar patterns (Experiment 1, 2), an immediate repetition (Experiment 3), and/or minimal variation in surface-level groups (Experiment 4; Surface Level Complexity ¼ 1), appear to have been instrumen- tal in yielding effects of emergent-level structure. We do not presume that this is an exhaustive list of criteria but it seems that a listener's attention will tend to remain at the melodic surface in the absence of substantive evi- dence reinforcing a possible emergent-level structure. ...
Context 3
... are acquired through statistical learning (extra-opus) and through rule iteration (intra-opus). Complexity at any given level of structure is thought to depend on the extent to which it fulfills expectancy (Narmour, 1990, 1992; also see Meyer, 1956, pp. 138- 139). Consistent with this view, Rohrmeier and Cross (2013) recently reported that implicit learning of melodies is impeded when surface-level events frequently deny bottom-up expectancies described in the I-R model (Rohrmeier & Cross, 2013). Similarly, Loui (2012) found that statistical learning of an artificial grammar is impaired after small intervals are removed from melodies (denial of a bottom-up principle of expectancy referred to as pitch proximity). No empirical evidence exists to date regarding whether bottom-up principles of expectancy may influence melodic processing difficulty in hierarchically structured melodies. In the current study, hierarchical structure was primarily established through the manipulation of bottom- up principles of expectancy. Note-to-note transitions within groups generally fulfilled expectancy, while note-to-note transitions between groups denied expectancy. The denials were achieved by following a small interval (three semitones or less) with a large interval (six semitones or greater). These expectancy denials occurred with temporal regularity so as to create surface-level groups of regular size with the first note of each group rising to the emergent level (see Figure 1). The type of expectancy denial implemented in this study has been judged unexpected across a variety of contexts (Cuddy & Lunney, 1995; Krumhansl, 1995; Schellenberg, 1996, 1997). Fujioka, Trainor, Ross, Kakigi, and Pantev (2004) found that this type of denial elicits a magnetic type of mismatch negativity (MMNm), suggesting that it is encoded preattentively and automatically. Emergent-level structure was further clarified using two devices. First, under certain conditions, familiar melodic patterns served as surface-level groups (e.g., major triad). Familiar patterns facilitate the identifica- tion of groups, which should support events rising to the emergent level. Second, under certain conditions surface-level groups were repeated under simple transposition. Repetition should further clarify grouping structure and draw attention to the emergent level (Deutsch & Feroe, 1981; Meyer, 1956; Margulis, 2013; Narmour, 1990, 1992, 1999, 2000). Meyer (1973, p. 53) states that ‘‘on the hierarchic level where repetition is immediate, it [ repetition ] tends to separate events. But on the next level – where similar events are grouped together as part of some larger unit – repetition tends to create coherence.’’ Similarly, the I-R model states that all other things being equal, the extent of repetition at the surface will influence perceived complexity and that this complexity is inversely related to attention at the emergent level (Narmour, 2000, Table 1). Hence, an immediate exact repetition of form (A 0 , A 0 ) is more expected and will emphasize emergent-level structure more than an immediate near repetition of form (A 0 , A 1 ), which in turn will be more expected and emphasize the emergent-level more than an immediate contrast in form (A, B). See Figure 2 for examples of different types of surface-level repetition. Structure at the emergent level was categorically labeled as simple or complex. Simple emergent-level structure involved a sequence of small intervals moving in the same direction. This type of structure is referred to as process in the I-R model and is considered highly expected (Narmour, 1989, 1990, 1999). Similar structures have been described in other models as highly expected and even archetypal: inertia (Larson, 2012), good continuation (Meyer, 1956, 1973), step inertia (Huron, 2006; von Hippel, 2002) and direction (Margulis, 2005). Complex emergent-level structure also involved a sequence of small intervals but the direction of intervals varied resulting in a combination of structures that is less expected. Two response measures were implemented to evaluate the effects of emergent-level structure on melodic processing difficulty: serial reconstruction and perceived cohesion. In the serial reconstruction task adapted from the jigsaw puzzle procedure designed by Deli `ge and collea- gues (Deli `ge & M ́len, 1997; Deli `ge, M ́len, Stammers, & Cross, 1996; also see Tillmann, Bigand, & Madurell, 1998), a melody is presented, after which participants are given randomly arranged segments from the melody and asked to rearrange the order so as to match the original. In the cohesion task, listeners are asked to judge the perceived cohesion of melodies. Eerola, Himberg, Toiviainen, and Louhivuori (2006) formalized a number of statistical measures to predict melodic complexity: entropy of pitch-class distribution, entropy of interval distribution, mean interval size, entropy of duration distribution, rhythmic variability, note density, tonal ambiguity, accent incoherence, contour self-similarity, and contour entropy. These measures were drawn from information-theoretic, music-theoretic, and dynamic attending approaches to melodic complexity. As we were primarily interested in the influence of emergent-level structure as defined by the I-R model, test melodies within each experiment were composed in a manner that minimized variability in these measures across levels of emergent structure (i.e., no statistically significant differences). The aim of this experiment was to assess melodic processing difficulty in hierarchically structured melodies using a serial reconstruction task. Melodies were composed to establish simple or complex emergent-level structure according to principles of the I-R model. At the surface level, melodies either repeated the same group under transposition or chained together unre- lated surface-level groups. The former type of surface- level structure was referred to as simple and the latter, complex. For melodies with simple surface-level structure, each surface-level group consisted of a major or minor triad. The group was repeated five times under transposition. For melodies with complex surface-level structure, the surface-level groups were more variable, including less familiar non-triadic sequences. We predicted main effects of simple- and emergent-level structure, as well as an interaction, whereby emergent-level differences would be enhanced when surface-level structure was simple. Ease of processing was assessed using a serial reconstruction task. Participants. Twenty-four undergraduate students were recruited to participate from the Queen’s University community. Demographic information for each participant group (musician/nonmusician) is provided in Table 1. Participants recruited through the Introductory Psychology Participant Pool were given course credit for their participation. These participants included a mix of musicians and nonmusicians. Additional participants for the musician group were recruited using posters displayed around campus. Musicians recruited with posters were reimbursed with nominal payment. Apparatus. Participants were individually tested in a sound-attenuated chamber. Melodies were ...

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Citations

... The cognitive approach has largely been from one of two perspectives. One view is that expectancies reflect both the top-down influence of enculturation to a musical style (e.g., tonality in Western melodies), and a bottom-up set of innate Gestalt principles for successive surface-level or non-successive emergent-level tones that may facilitate auditory grouping (Bregman, 1990;Narmour, 1990Narmour, , 1992Narmour, , 1999Russo et al., 2015). The most parsimonious account of the bottom-up principles, Schellenberg's (1996) twofactor model, proposes that listeners expect that the next tone should be close in pitch to both the previous tone (proximity) and the next-to-previous tone (reversal), especially if it has initiated a large leap (see Figure 2). ...
Article
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Where does a listener's anticipation of the next note in an unfamiliar melody come from? One view is that expectancies reflect innate grouping biases; another is that expectancies reflect statistical learning through previous musical exposure. Listening experiments support both views but in limited contexts, e.g., using only instrumental renditions of melodies. Here we report replications of two previous experiments, but with additional manipulations of timbre (instrumental vs. sung renditions) and register (modal vs. upper). Following a proposal that melodic expectancy is vocally constrained, we predicted that sung renditions would encourage an expectation that the next tone will be a “singable” one, operationalized here as one having an absolute pitch height that falls within the modal register. Listeners heard melodic fragments and gave goodness-of-fit ratings on the final tone (Experiment 1) or rated how certain they were about what the next note would be (Experiment 2). Ratings in the instrumental conditions were consistent with the original findings, but differed significantly from ratings in the sung conditions, which were more consistent with the vocal constraints model. We discuss how a vocal constraints model could be extended to include expectations about duration and tonality.
... A cohesive melody is a melody with tone sequences that are perceived to hang together as a unified whole, rather than a series of individual tones.'' Experiment 1 used the same 7-point scale as Russo et al. (2015), where 1 = not cohesive, 4 = moderately cohesive, and 7 = very cohesive. ...
Article
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Two experiments investigated perceptual and emotional consequences of note articulation in music by examining the degree to which participants perceived notes to be separated from each other in a musical phrase. Seven-note piano melodies were synthesized with staccato notes (short decay) or legato notes (gradual/sustained decay). Experiment 1 (n = 64) addressed the impact of articulation on perceived melodic cohesion and perceived emotion expressed through melodies. Participants rated melodic cohesion and perceived emotions conveyed by 32 legato and 32 staccato melodies. Legato melodies were rated more cohesive than staccato melodies and perceived as emotionally calmer and sadder than staccato melodies. Staccato melodies were perceived as having greater tension and energy. Experiment 2 (n = 60) addressed whether articulation is associated with humor and fear in music, and whether the impact of articulation depends on major vs. minor mode. For both modes, legato melodies were scarier than staccato melodies, whereas staccato melodies were more amusing and surprising. The effect of articulation on perceived happiness and sadness was dependent on mode: staccato enhanced perceived happiness for minor melodies; legato enhanced perceived sadness for minor melodies. Findings are discussed in relation to theories of music processing, with implications for music composition, performance, and pedagogy.
... & Mewhort, 1981;Fitch, 2013;Koelsch, 2012;Russo, Thompson, & Cuddy, 2015;Simon, 1972). In Western tonal music, metric structures are hierarchically organized based on strong and weak beats (Jones, 2009;Patel, 2008;, while harmonic structures are organized based on the stability of notes or chords (Krumhansl, 1990). ...
Article
The processing of temporal structure has been widely investigated, but evidence on how the brain processes temporal and nontemporal structures simultaneously is sparse. Using event‐related potentials (ERPs), we examined how the brain responds to temporal (metric) and nontemporal (harmonic) structures in music simultaneously, and whether these processes are impacted by musical expertise. Fifteen musicians and 15 nonmusicians rated the degree of completeness of musical sequences with or without violations in metric or harmonic structures. In the single violation conditions, the ERP results showed that both musicians and nonmusicians exhibited an early right anterior negativity (ERAN) as well as an N5 to temporal violations (“when”), and only an N5‐like response to nontemporal violations (“what”), which were consistent with the behavioral results. In the double violation condition, however, only the ERP results, but not the behavioral results, revealed a significant interaction between temporal and nontemporal violations at a later integrative stage, as manifested by an enlarged N5 effect compared to the single violation conditions. These findings provide the first evidence that the human brain uses different neural mechanisms in processing metric and harmonic structures in music, which may shed light on how the brain generates predictions for “what” and “when” events in the natural environment.
... Support for proximity as a melodic expectation has been found across a variety of melodic contexts (Cuddy & Lunney, 1995;Krumhansl, 1995;Russo, Thompson, & Cuddy, 2015) as well as with listeners from dif fer ent cultures (Schellenberg, 1996). One further point to consider with the princi ple of pitch proximity is that although it is conventionally defined in terms of interval size, the critical variable influencing grouping and expectancy in melody is likely to be perceptual rather than physical. ...
... Similar structures that have been noted in other models as highly expected and even archetypal include inertia (Larson, 2012), good continuation (Meyer, 1956(Meyer, , 1973, step inertia (von Hippel, 2002;Huron, 2006), and direction (Margulis, 2005). Russo et al. (2015) investigated whether listeners were sensitive to this type of structure when it was realized between emergent tones of a melody. Results indicated that melodies possessing a pro cess at the emergent level were judged to be more cohesive and easier to remember. ...
Chapter
The single-source hypothesis is presented as a unified theory for understanding the processing of simultaneous and sequential pitch combinations. Under the topic of simultaneous pitch combinations, auditory scene analysis and octave equivalence are considered. Under the topic of sequential pitch combinations, surface-level features (e.g., pitch direction, pitch distance, and contour) are considered, followed by a review of principles of surface-level grouping and their possible origins. In the second half of the chapter, Bharucha’s (1984) distinction between tonal and event hierarchies is used to provide structure for a systematic review of research on sensitivity to tonal hierarchies and to hierarchical (or emergent) structure in melody. The chapter ends with a consideration of theory and research concerning melodic processing difficulty and similarity.
... Within music training, 10 papers referred to "music training", including instrumental or classical/contemporary training; nine papers reported "formal music training"; and one paper specifically detailed the Suzukimethod as a type of music training (Joret, Germeys, & Gidron, 2017). Of the remaining 26% of papers containing a split point value (7 out of 27), four papers detailed music lessons (i.e., instrumental, music theory, or private/group lessons; Andrade, Vanzella, Andrade, & Schellenberg, 2017;Frey, Hautbois, Bootz, & Tijus, 2014;Russo, Thompson, & Cuddy, 2015;Sears, Caplin, & McAdams, 2014); one paper detailed formal music lessons (Weijkamp & Sadakata, 2017); another on instrumental playing experience (Hansen, Wallentin, & Vuust, 2013); and one in terms of years in an undergraduate degree in music (Goodchild, Gingras, & McAdams, 2016). Among the different forms of musical expertise, there was a noteable difference between the verbatim terms "music training" and "formal music training." ...
... One study reported an average of 11.4 years of study on a musical instrument, after participants were required to have music training equivalent or superior to second year university level (Sears et al., 2014). One study reported an average of 11.6 years of private and group instruction based on a scoring system where each year of private instruction counted as one year, and each year of group instruction counted as half a year (Russo, Thompson, & Cuddy, 2015). e Performing experience. ...
... The majority of papers grouped the musicians using an a priori selection method (62% of total papers; 24 out of 39), followed by arbitrary a priori (28% of total papers; 11 out of 39). A small percentage of papers (10%; 4 out of 39) followed a statistical approach (Douglas, Noble, & McAdams, 2016;Habibi, Wirantana, & Starr, 2013;McAuley et al., 2011;Russo et al., 2015). ...
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The aim of this paper was to investigate if a general consensus could be established for the term “musician.” Research papers (N = 730) published between 2011 and 2017 were searched. Of these, 95 papers were identified as investigating relationships of any sort connected with a musician-like category (e.g., comparison of musically trained vs. non-musically trained people), of which 39 papers detailing comparative studies exclusively between musicians and non-musicians were analyzed. Within this literature, a variety of musical expertise criteria were used to define musicians, with years of music training (51% of papers) and years of music lessons (13% of papers) being the most commonly used criteria. Findings confirm a general consensus in the literature, namely, that a musician, whether or not selected a priori, has at least six years of musical expertise (IQR = 4.0–10.0 years). Other factors such as practice time and recruiting location of musicians were also analyzed, as well as the implications of how this definition fits in relation to the complexities surrounding the construct of the musician. The “six-year rule,” however, was robust overall.
... Many music theorists consider a sequence of small pitch intervals moving in the same direction as a kind of archetypical melodic form (e.g., Huron, 2006;Margulis, 2005;Narmour, 1990). Russo, Thompson, and Cuddy (2015) found that listeners are sensitive to this form even when it is realized between nonadjacent notes of a melody. The nonadjacent notes are said to be perceived as an emergent-level process (see Figure 7.3). ...
... listener, for example, to perceive one melody as an elaboration of another. Melodies with simple event hierarchies are easier to remem- ber and appear more cohesive ( Russo et al., 2015). Moreover, the lack of a transparent event hierarchy may account at least in part for the general public's rejection of serialist music in the 20th century (Lerdahl, 2001). ...
Chapter
This chapter reviews research on music perception. The review has been divided into four major sections. The first section considers research on pitch perception. The second section considers research on perception of timbre, perception of consonance, the generation of melodic expectancies, and the representation of tonal hierarchies. The third section considers research on rhythm and the representation of longer excerpts of music. The final section evaluates those aspects of music that appear to be universal as well as the possible origins of music.