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The present study addressed hypotheses about cyclical entrainment between interacting dyad members in their moment-to-moment levels of dominance and affiliation. Using a computer joystick technique, observers recorded the continuous stream of behavior for each partner in 50 mixed-sex dyads, and the data for each dyad were submitted to time-series a...
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... Whereas this approach facilitates data handling and analysis, it also results in the loss of potentially valuable, time-dependent information (e.g., behavioral variability within exercises, sequence and timing of behavior; Geukes et al. 2017;Hopwood et al. 2020). Alternative assessment methods (e.g., continuous behavior assessment via joysticks; Hopwood et al. 2020;Sadler et al. 2009; automated behavior extraction methods; Cannata et al. 2022;Eyben, Wöllmer, and Schuller 2010;Radford et al. 2022)-could facilitate a temporally fine-grained analysis of AC behavior. Moreover, a longitudinal assessment of expressed behavior would allow researchers to examine how different (groups of) behaviors (Ingold, Dönni, and Lievens 2018), features of behavioral distributions (e.g., variability vs. mean; Fleeson 2001) and levels of complexity (e.g., continuous assessment vs. different intervals of aggregation) contribute to the performance of AC judgment prediction models as a function of developing situational information. ...
Although Assessment Center (AC) role‐play assessments have received ample attention in past research, their reliance on actual behavioral information is still unclear. Uncovering the behavioral basis of AC role‐play assessments is, however, a prerequisite for the optimization of existing and the development of novel automated AC procedures. This work provides a first data‐driven benchmark for the behavioral prediction and explanation of AC performance judgments. We used machine learning models trained on behavioral cues ( C = 36) to predict performance judgments in three interpersonal AC exercises from a real‐life high‐stakes AC (selection of medical students, N = 199). Three main findings emerged: First, behavioral prediction models showed substantial predictive performance and outperformed prediction models representing potential judgment biases. Comparisons with in‐sample results revealed overfitting of traditional approaches, highlighting the importance of out‐of‐sample evaluations. Second, we demonstrate that linear combinations of behavioral cues can be strong predictors of assessors' judgments. Third, we identified consistent exercise‐specific patterns of individual cues and cross‐exercise consistent behavioral patterns of behavioral dimensions and interpersonal strategies that were especially predictive of the assessors' judgments. We discuss implications for future research and practice.
... Behavioral coding procedure. The current study used the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID; Sadler et al., 2009) tool to provide continuous measurements of warmth and dominance behaviors expressed by romantic dyads while attempting to resolve an issue of conflict in their relationship. The CAID technique has been used extensively in previous research in other domains where researchers continuously tracked behaviors during interpersonal interactions (c.f., Fox et al., 2021;Meisel et al., 2021). ...
... In the current study, each video-recorded conflict discussion was coded using the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID; Sadler et al., 2009) tool, which provides a continuous assessment of behavior throughout interpersonal interactions. The CAID was designed to measure verbal and nonverbal behaviors that are broader than specific motor activities (e.g., "leg extension," "head orientation," "trunk recline," etc.; Gifford, 1991Gifford, , 1994Gifford & O'Connor, 1987) and focus on general behaviors that tend to have clear and meaningful interpersonal interpretations during an interaction (e.g., "warmth," "gregariousness," "arrogance," etc. ;Funder, 1999). ...
... Because the CAID methodology recorded each of the 346 participants' behavior every .5 s for 8 min, there were a total of 332,160 warmth and dominance behavioral codes. Consistent with past CAID research, the first 10 data points for each call were deleted to allow raters 5 seconds to orient themselves to the interaction and provide enough time for the participants to begin their discussion (c.f., Sadler et al., 2009). To address the research questions outlined earlier, dyadic mixed multilevel interaction models were estimated (Kashy et al., 2008;Kenny et al., 2006) to examine the two behavioral outcomes: warmth and dominance behavior. ...
Research on romantic conflict has persuasively documented that the way partners communicate with one another during disagreements is a driving factor in predicting how they perceive the conflicts in their relationships. The current research added to this literature by differentiating couples who resolve conflicts more, versus less, successfully. Specifically, the current work examined how couples’ behavioral trajectories across the course of conflict related to their perceptions of conflict resolution. To this end, we coded warmth and dominance behaviors exhibited by 173 couple members (346 individuals) over the course of an eight-minute conflict discussion. We examined how participants’, and their partners’, perceptions of conflict resolution were related to their interpersonal behaviors. In line with predictions, less average interpersonal warmth was associated with worse perceptions of resolution, and declining warmth over time was also associated with worse perceptions of resolution. Dominance behaviors were not associated with conflict resolution perceptions.
... Ratings are captured every half-second to create concurrent time series for interactants' agency and communion as the interpersonal situation naturally unfolds. This data can be used to describe various entrainments and temporal patterns that link the two interactants (Sadler et al., 2009). ...
A major foundation for all clinical competencies is the ability to sensitively attend to and understand the moment-to-moment processes occurring between trainees and their clients. The current article reports on the development and feasibility of a training protocol to help clinical trainees become more attuned to moment-to-moment processes during psychotherapy sessions within a practicum training setting. This study uses interpersonal processes as an exemplar of how to use this training framework. This protocol employs a novel methodology called Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics in an innovative way by having clinical trainees and client dyads rate both self and others’ moment-to-moment interpersonal behavior across two psychotherapy sessions. Two therapist–client dyads completed this training protocol. Feedback was provided through data visualizations and narrative summaries of the data. Both trainees who participated in the present study reported that the feedback integrating questionnaire and moment-to-moment interpersonal variables was useful in their conceptualization of their clients’ problems, as well as in helping them reflect on their own interpersonal behavior in session. In this article, we combine theory and method to develop a feasible and empirically supported clinical training methodology that is applicable across treatment orientations. All materials to implement this training protocol are available on the Open Science Framework, allowing interested supervisors to integrate this training into their practica (https://osf.io/8f2th/).
... This may be characterized as "situational" complementarity (see Roche, 2022 for a review). More recently, Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID; Fox et al., 2021;Hopwood et al., 2020, Sadler et al., 2009 has been developed to gather ratings of interpersonal behavior at a momentto-moment timescale, allowing researchers to examine reciprocal interpersonal patterns within interactions. Therefore, to correctly tether theory to timescale, it is important to identify which operationalization of interpersonal complementarity is being used in study designs. ...
... Interpersonal agency is based on every person's urge to be differentiated as an individual and is adapted in social interaction (Gurtman, 2009;Wiggins, 1991). Agency refers to interpersonal behaviours of control in relation to other people, varying from moment-to-moment dominance to submission (Pennings, et al., 2018;Sadler et al., 2009). ...
... One's agentic behaviours tend to obey the principle of complementarity: perceived agentic behaviours are responded to with submission by others, with higher intensity of agency leading to stronger responses (Kiesler, 1983;Sadler et al., 2009). Gallagher (2005) notes that people are able to understand the intentions and actions of others, and this is defined as social cognition. ...
Purposeful behaviours of student agency are essential in collaborative learning. As agentic behaviour is based on psychological mechanisms, it is also reflected in a person's inner, psychophysiological arousal. As agency is a relational process, physiological synchrony (mutual shifts in physiology) may provide unique insights into the role of agency in collaborative learning. This research uses two approaches to understand the continuous connection between physiological synchrony and agency behaviours. We use skin conductivity to measure physiological arousal both in reaction to context (phasic) and the level of intensity (tonic). As a novel parallel measure, we use coding of agency behaviours as a quantitative measurement to understand collaborative group work of four students during one lesson. Signal similarity analysis of a maximum time lag series (MTLC) by dynamic time warping (DTW) revealed moments of intense collaboration. The results indicate that students' agency is reflected in physiological synchrony. During collaborative group work, the students displayed high physiological synchrony, with students' tonic electrodermal activity (EDA) correlated with agency behaviours. The benefits of analysing skin conductivity and video analysis of agency behaviour together further the interpretation of physiological synchrony during social processes. Both physiological reactions and contemporary interpersonal analyses display a symbiotic relationship worthy of further investigation.
... The IPC provides conceptual coordinates for describing and measuring interpersonal dispositions (Figure 9.1B) that imply enduring patterns of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving aggregated across time, place, and relationships, and are identified as major dimensions in contemporary dimensional models of personality and psychopathology . Finally, the IPC can also specify specific behaviors enacted within interpersonal situations (Moskowitz, 2005;Sadler et al., 2009). This metaframework and its empirically validated derivations are a "key conceptual map" (Kiesler, 1996, p. 172 for an interpersonal description of personality structures and personality processes. ...
... Pols and Moser (2009) note the common contrast between 'warm' human care, that responds to the individualised needs of others, and 'cold' technologies, that respond in purely rational, standardised, instrumental manner to care needs, for instance that monitor blood pressure but do not put a reassuring hand on the patient's shoulder (Pols and Moser, 2009, p.160). Such discussions reflect the two tensions described in psychological models of circumplex interpersonal behaviours (Horowitz et al., 2006) and interpersonal theory (Sadler et al., 2009), where orthogonal dimensions of dominance-submissiveness and affiliation-hostility map out contrasting styles of relationships. Practices of care seem to reflect similar polarities and tensions. ...
Framed by Tronto's (1993) description of care as social process, and her third and fourth phases of 'care-giving' and 'care-receiving' as part of this process, this chapter deals with the issue of how care might be performed competently as a practical accomplishment in social interaction. From a discourse analysis of interview texts about 'being gentle' at work, we identify three different root metaphors from which practices of care are socially constructed. We project these root metaphors to build an extended vocabulary of care that helps to describe interpersonal care-giving as a changing dynamic practice. From this vocabulary, we offer some practical thoughts on the symbolic resources through which meanings of care may be generated. We also identify three potential areas for future research questions: around the multimodal nature of care; care within challenging work situations; and how competence may be defined in dynamic care-giving.
... Interpersonal complementarity constitutes such a critical dynamic phenomenon. It transpires in everyday social contexts (e.g., friendship, romantic relationships) and refers to "the dynamic interplay of behavior between two people during interaction-that is, people's mutual adjustments to each other, and therefore the changes in behavior, that occur during the course of interaction" (Sadler et al., 2009(Sadler et al., , p. 1006. According to interpersonal complementarity theory (Carson, 1969;Kiesler, 1983), these adjustments follow functional rules: (un)friendly behavior leads to (un)friendly behavior, whereas dominant behavior results in submissive behavior and vice versa. 1 Although interpersonal complementarity serves as a governing force of daily interactions, we have no evidence whether it also occurs in interpersonal assessment: Do candidates adapt to their interaction partners in accordance with the complementarity rules? ...
... Although all levels can provide valuable insights, the continuous behavioral exchange level is best suited to uncover interpersonal dynamics (e.g., Hopwood et al., 2020;P. Markey et al., 2010;Sadler et al., 2009;Tracey, 2004). feelings of security. ...
... So, the focus is on the occurrences in which one party changes its interpersonal behavior in response to the other party. That is why mutual adaptations are denoted as specific momentary adjustments in one party's behavior that are linked to changes in the other party's behavior, holding overall temporal trends constant (Sadler et al., 2009(Sadler et al., , 2011. Figures 3a and 3b depict mutual adaptations in terms of dominance and affiliation, respectively. ...
In assessment and selection, organizations often include interpersonal interactions because they provide insights into candidates’ interpersonal skills. These skills are then typically assessed via one-shot, retrospective assessor ratings. Unfortunately, the assessment of interpersonal skills at such a trait-like level fails to capture the richness of how the interaction unfolds at the behavioral exchange level within a role-play assessment. This study uses the lens of interpersonal complementarity theory to advance our understanding of interpersonal dynamics in role-play assessment and their effects on assessor ratings. Ninety-six MBA students participated in four different flash role-plays as part of diagnosing their strengths and weaknesses. Apart from gathering assessor ratings and criterion measures, coders also conducted a fine-grained examination of how the behavior of the two interaction partners (i.e., MBA students and role-players) unfolded at the moment-to-moment level via the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID) measurement tool. In all role-plays, candidates consistently showed mutual adaptations in line with complementarity principles: Affiliative behavior led to affiliative behavior, whereas dominant behavior resulted in docile, following behavior and vice versa. For affiliation, mutual influence also occurred in that both interaction partners’ temporal trends in affiliation were entrained over time. Complementarity patterns were significantly related to ratings of in situ (role-playing) assessors but not to ratings of ex situ (remote) assessors. The effect of complementarity on validity was mixed. Overall, this study highlights the importance of going beyond overall ratings to capture behavioral contingencies such as complementarity patterns in interpersonal role-play assessment.
... One observational tool that has shown promise in its ability to assess interpersonal dynamics is the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics system (CAID) [10][11][12][13]. The CAID system assesses interpersonal dynamics as they unfold in real time and models interpersonal processes at the individual and dyadic level, capturing contextual nuance and the reciprocal nature of these dynamics. ...
... They found lower warmth complementarity when children exhibited high ADHD symptoms, suggesting that parent-child dyads with a lower tendency to reciprocate warmth also had a higher likelihood of severe child ADHD symptoms. Assessing complementarity requires tools that can capture variation within interactions as complementarity is thought of as a transaction that occurs over the course of an interaction [13]. Accordingly, the current study focuses on the Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID), an instrument designed to capture variations in interpersonal behavior over the course of interactions. ...
... The CAID is an observational coding method where raters use a computer joystick to continuously assess changes in warmth and dominance during an interaction [13]. The CAID has successfully been applied to studies of married couples and romantic partners [10,11,16], patients and therapists [32,34], unacquainted undergraduates [13,35], and parents and their children [11,12,14,15]. ...
The Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics (CAID) is an observational tool that measures warmth and dominance dynamics in real time and is sensitive to individual, dyadic, and contextual influences. Parent-adolescent interpersonal dynamics, which conceptually map onto parenting styles, are an integral part of positive adolescent adjustment and protect against risky outcomes. The current study’s goal was to test the degree to which sources of influence on CAID data observed in a previous study of married couples generalize to a sample of parent-adolescent dyads. We examined data from ten raters who rated moment-to-moment warmth and dominance using CAID in a sample of 61 parent-adolescent dyads (N = 122) who were largely non-Hispanic White (62%) or African American (30%) based on parent report (adolescent M age = 14; 57% female). Dyads interacted in four different discussion segments (situations). We applied Generalizability Theory to delineate several sources of variance in CAID parameters and estimated within and between-person reliability. Results revealed a number of different influences, including the person, kinsperson (adolescent versus parent), dyad, rater, situation, and interactions among these factors, on ratings of parent-adolescent interpersonal behavior. These results largely replicate results from married couples, suggesting that the factors that influence ratings of interpersonal interactions largely generalize across sample types.
... This cycle happens continuously moment-to-moment in an interpersonal situation. The most well-studied pattern of behavior is complementarity (Sadler et al., 2009). Complementarity in communion means that warmth from one partner invites warmth from the other, and in agency it means that dominance invites submission and vice versa. ...
The current study aimed to examine the relationship between personality traits and interpersonal states. Eighty undergraduate participants were administered personality trait inventories, then 40 dyads were video recorded doing collaborative tasks. These video recordings were coded for moment-to-moment communion and agency using Continuous Assessment of Interpersonal Dynamics. Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling was used to understand the impact of personality traits on interpersonal dynamics (average, variability, slope, complementarity on agency and communion). The results showed that there were no relationships between personality traits and dynamics. There were two main limitations that may explain these results. First, behavior may have been influenced more by social norms to be friendly and take turns than personality traits, especially in this “strong situation”. Second, it may be useful to aggregate behavior over multiple situations to capture variance attributable to traits. Future studies should aggregate behavior over multiple situations and/or change the situational constraints on behavior in order to determine the relationship between states and traits.
