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Styrene is metabolised to a highly reactive and toxic epoxide, styrene oxide, which can interact with DNA causingamutationwhichmightinitiatecarcinogenesis.
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Polystyrene (PS) is a petroleum‐based plastic made from styrene (vinyl benzene) monomer. Since it was first commercially produced in 1930, it has been used for a wide range of commercial, packaging and building purposes. In 2012, approximately 32.7 million tonnes of styrene were produced globally, and polystyrene is now a ubiquitous household item...
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Context 1
... andemergesfromresearchintostyrene'smetabolite(i.e.styreneoxide)asachemicallyhighly reactive epoxide, which might chemically bond to DNA and thus initiate carcinogenesis (Figure 2).Itisnowlargelyacceptedthatstyreneoxideislikelytoberesponsibleforstyrene's carcinogenicity, and since there are likely to be species and inter-individual differences in metabolism,therearealsolikelytobedifferencesinsusceptibilitytocarcinogenicitybetween speciesandindividuals [10]. ...
Context 2
... tivity,itinteractswithcellsystemscausingwidespreadmetabolicdamage.Inparticular,sty- renecanchemicallyreactwithspecificcomponentsofDNAresultinginchanges,whichaffect therateofdivisionofcells( Figure 2).Thismutationisthebasisofchemicalcarcinogenesis andexplainswhystyreneisacarcinogeninanimalstudiesandreasonablyanticipatedtobe acarcinogeninhumans [14]. ...
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Citations
... PS, for example, is particularly difficult to recycle and it contains toxic constituents including its building blocks, styrene monomer, a suspected carcinogen (World Health Organisation, 2019). PS, PVC, PC, and PU "can be carcinogenic and can affect organisms in a similar way to the hormone estrogen" (Rochman et al., 2013, p. 170;Farrelly and Shaw, 2017). The Basel Plastics Amendments has recognized the problematic nature of these plastics by requiring PIC for their trade. ...
The Basel Plastic Waste Amendments reflect growing global concern about the illegal plastic waste trade as waste colonialism. Comprehensive analyses of plastic waste material sources, pathways, and fates are needed for effective plastic waste trade policy. Plastics waste flows from Palmerston North, New Zealand to Malaysia highlight potential gaps in plastic waste trade policies. The authors recommend strengthening New Zealand's national waste policy framework and the Basel Convention's Plastics Amendments by basing policy responses on critical transboundary plastic waste material flow analyses, establishing harmonized definitions including “recyclable” and “environmentally sound recycling”; regulating contamination thresholds and container inspections; and waste trade traceability, transparency, compliance, enforcement, and remediation; reclassifying fluorinated polymers and thermosets as “hazardous”; and prioritizing principles of prevention, proximity and precaution over future investments in the management of plastic waste.
... Th e production of polystyrene foam pollutes the air and generates large amounts of liquid and solid waste [10,12]. Th ompson et al. [13], Farrelly & Shaw [14], and Turner [15] state that a significant amount of marine litter is polystyrene foam which occurs in air and water, especially along the banks of water bodies. Th is aff ects animals: broken pieces of polystyrene block their airways and cause the development of cancer and digestive problems [16]. ...
Millions of tons of microplastics get into the environment, being eaten by many species of mammals and humans. One of the main types of plastic, polystyrene, and its monomer, bisphenol, have been fairly well studied in terms of their eff ects on metabolism, but changes in the intestinal microbiota under the infl uence of its addition to the diet remain insufficiently studied. Th e aim of this article is to describe the changes in the main components of the mice intestinal microbiota in the conditions of adding diff erent concentrations of crushed polystyrene foam to their diet. Methods. Four groups of white laboratory mice ate crushed particles of polystyrene foam (10% of the polymer by weight of the feed, 1%, 0.1%, and the control group-without addition of plastic) as part of the compound feed for 42 days. At the end of the experiment, cultures of animal feces samples were analyzed. Results. Polystyrene foam particles in the main mice diet, especially at a higher concentration (10%), have changed the number of the main representatives of the obligate (Bifi dobacterium spp.) and some elements of the facultative microorganisms (Lactobacillus spp. and typical Escherichia coli). In all groups of mice that consumed polystyrene foam, there was observed a change in the quantitative ratio of E. coli with normal and altered enzymatic properties. In laboratory animals, to the diet of which 1% or 10% polystyrene foam was added, a decrease in the number of facultative microorganisms was revealed in representatives of the genera Lactobacillus and Enterococcus along with an increase in the number of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria and fungi of the genus Can-dida. Conclusions. Such changes can contribute to the reproduction of facultative opportunistic microorganisms and the development of various diseases.
... PS is not susceptible to biodegradation due to its highly stable structure and high molecular weight [11]. Currently, PS is known to cause adverse effects on human health, given its toxicity, and is listed as a possible carcinogenic agent [12]. Xu et al., observed accumulation of PS nanoplastics in the intestines, brain, lungs and kidneys of mice after exposure of 10 mg/ mL for 28 days [13]. ...
The excessive plastics production and its inappropriate disposal contribute to unprecedented pollution. Galleria mellonella larvae were chosen as the object of this work, in order to evaluate its ability to biodegrade two types of plastics most common in everyday life: polystyrene (PS) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This research is one of the few that use PS and LDPE as the sole carbon sources in the diet of G. mellonella. We studied how contact with larvae affected both types of plastic, covering morphological, physicochemical and mass loss levels. In this particular work, twenty-five larvae were placed inside glass containers in direct contact with the plastics and incubated in the dark at 28 °C. The results showed that PS had greater biodegradation, indicating 56.12% mass loss, while LDPE was 5.11% degraded. After 7.25 days of testing, the larvae survival rate was 60% for PS and 82% for LDPE. The contact with the larvae changed the material wettability, being more noticeable on the PS surface. The formation of new chemical groups indicated the existence of biodegradation processes in the PS sample, but in LDPE no new bands were observed. After 7.25 days, we evaluated larval survival and pupal formation after contact with PS and LPDE, but no significant differences were observed between the groups. No significant difference on the survival and pupa formation of larvae exposed to both types of plastic was found. We conclude that G. mellonella larvae can be a cost-effective and promising alternative to biodegrade PS and LDPE pieces in plastic waste environments.
... As plastic waste has become a pollutant, contaminating landfills and the marine environment, it should be mentioned that one-third of landfilling plastic is PS [132]. Styrene monomers leaching from PS are also very dangerous, being considered carcinogenic in humans [133]. ...
Plastic production worldwide has doubled in the last two decades and is expected to reach a four-fold increase by 2050. The durability of plastic makes them a perfect material for many applications, but it is also a key limitation to their end-of-life management. The current plastic lifecycle is far from circular, with only 13% being collected for recycling and 9% being successfully recycled, indicating the failure of current recycling technology. The remaining plastic waste streams are thus incinerated, landfilled, or worse, mismanaged, leading to them leaking into the environment. To promote plastic circularity, keeping material in the loop is a priority and represents a more sustainable solution. This can be achieved through the reuse of plastic items, or by using plastic waste as a resource for new materials, instead of discarding them as waste. As the discovery of plastic-degrading/utilizing microorganisms and enzymes has been extensively reported recently, the possibility of developing biological plastic upcycling processes is opening up. An increasing amount of studies have investigated the use of plastic as a carbon source for biotechnological processes to produce high-value compounds such as bioplastics, biochemicals, and biosurfactants. In the current review, the advancements in fossil-based plastic bio- and thermochemical upcycling technologies are presented and critically discussed. In particular, we highlight the developed (bio)depolymerization coupled with bioconversion/fermentation processes to obtain industrially valuable products. This review is expected to contribute to the future development and scale-up of effective plastic bioupcycling processes that can act as a drive to increase waste removal from the environment and valorize post-consumer plastic streams, thus accelerating the implementation of a circular (plastic) economy.
... They are widely used in daily life, including in all industry sectors, because of their first-class physicochemical properties [4]. Almost half of the plastic produced is destined for short-term use (less than one year), which results in huge amounts of plastic waste [5,6]. Most of the plastic waste (ca. ...
... As shown in the example of another group of micropollutants (i.e., pharmaceuticals), such changes may disrupt ecological interactions (e.g., predator-prey interactions), with implications for ecosystem processes, population and community dynamics [64]. Almost 40 % of plastic production is represented by packaging destined for short-term use (less than one year) [5], and polystyrene plays a significant role in this respect [65][66][67]. The problem has been accelerated further due to the COVID-19-related increase in takeaway food consumption, which creates over 80 % of the plastic litter in the oceans [68]. ...
The excessive worldwide production of plastic materials results in omnipresent microplastic pollution. Scientific studies dealing with the impacts of microplastics on aquatic ecosystems focus mainly on the marine environment, documenting the effect on the functional traits of various organisms. Polystyrene, one of the most commonly used plastics, has become a widely used model in this respect. In our study, freshwater shrimps (Neocardina heteropoda) were exposed to virgin polystyrene particles (size 0.5 mm; nominal concentration 8 mgL −1), and their behavioral and physiological responses were compared to control shrimp. The exposed shrimps exhibited modified activity patterns (greater speeds, accelerations and distances moved), accompanied by a lowered standard metabolic rate (SMR). The observed effects differed in their progression from the 7th to 14th day of exposure, from undetectable changes (distance, SMR) to significant differences (speed, acceleration). Significant differences were also detected in the behavioral syndromes expressed by the exposed and controlled shrimps, indicating that the microplastics influence not only the particular traits, but also their functional relationships. As such, our study contributes to the integration of behavioral ecotoxicology in risk assessment, documenting the adverse performance of freshwater invertebrates exposed to microplastics with the potential to transpose the problem to higher levels of the food web.
... In the recycling process, adhesives are often added, so that the recycled expanded polystyrene beads could stick sufficiently to new beads (Lye et al. 2002). Farrelly and Shaw (2017) also proposed that polystyrene products made with residual plastics were increasing in Asia countries. This also could explain the unexpected presence of BPS and other BPs in WFTOCs from China. ...
... This also could explain the unexpected presence of BPS and other BPs in WFTOCs from China. Alternatively, BPA may be intentionally added in the production process to increase the strength of WFTOCs (Farrelly and Shaw 2017). Moreover, these results also suggest that humans may largely expose to other unidentified organic compounds through using WFTOCs, which should be of concern and warrants more studies. ...
Bisphenol A (BPA) is mainly used to produce polycarbonate consumer products. However, the occurrence of BPA and other bisphenol analogues (BPs) in polystyrene-made plastic products, such as white foam take-out containers (WFTOCs), has not been well investigated. In this study, occurrence of 20 BPs in WFTOC samples collected from China, Canada, and Poland were investigated with a sample size of 152. Results showed that 11 out of 20 BPs have been detected at least in one WFTOC sample. Among them, BPA was the most frequently detected BP, followed by bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol AF, while BPF was the least detected BP. Very high concentrations of BPA and BPS were detected in WFTOCs from China (mean 2694 and 552 ng/g), compared with Canada (81 and 45 ng/g, respectively) and Poland (95 and 16 ng/g). Other BPs, such as bisphenol TMC (BPTMC; detection frequency 65%, range < LOQ − 224 ng/g), bisphenol G (17%, < LOQ − 11 ng/g), and bisphenol BP (11%, < LOQ − 1.6 ng/g), were also detected in Chinese WFTOC samples. The mean partitioning coefficients of BPA, BPS, bisphenol AP, and BPTMC between WFTOCs and tap water, 10% ethanol, 50% ethanol, corn oil, or steamed rice were 0.22 − 2.9%, 0.16 − 5.1%, 0.11 − 7.5%, 2.3 − 6.5%, or 0.19 − 0.36%, respectively. The estimated daily intake of BPA, BPS, and BPTMC through using WFTOCs were 0.50 − 547, 0.054 − 229, and < 0.66 ng/kg bw/day, respectively, for general population in China, Canada, and Poland. Overall, this study first reveals the unexpected presence of BPs in WFTOCs made of polystyrene, which contributes to the better understanding of the sources of human exposure to BPs.
Graphical abstract
... Typically, the term "Styrofoam" refers to EPS. Countless towns and cities worldwide now restrict the sale, possession, and distribution of Styrofoam [13,14]. Landfills are rapidly filling up, and Styrofoam has a significant share of it, taking up more space than any other kind of waste. ...
Waste polymer materials offer a lot of promise for recycling or enhancement in terms of the environment. HCPs (hypercrosslinked polymers) are an excellent contender for recycling polymers in environmental applications. We employed waste-expanded polystyrene and waste polycarbonate as precursors to make HCPs adsorbents for O2/N2 adsorption. Characterization analysis were performed to determine the adsorbents' morphology and structure. The fine adsorbent was waste-expended polystyrene which had been synthesized at 45 °C for 12 h and had a surface area of 802.84 (m²/g), an average pore diameter of 2.86 nm, and a micropore volume of roughly 184.46 (cm³/g). The Sips isotherm and Elovich kinetic models provided the best agreement (R² = 0.9994), according to experimental data. At 5 °C and 10 bar, the fine adsorbent had the highest O2 and N2 adsorption, with 12.78 and 7.67 (mmol/g), respectively. Eventually, the kinetic evidence demonstrated that the process physically occurred. Over nine cycles, the sorbent's ability for adsorption decreased by about 5%, indicating a high degree of reusability for air separation. The method described in this study can be considered a promising approach to air separation and purification by eco-friendly hypercrosslinked polymers.
... Polystyrene (PS) is a common petroleum-based plastic produced through the polymerization of styrene monomer. It is used in various packaging and building structures, such as in plastic cups, packaging materials, egg trays, disposable products, and building insulation (Farrelly and Shaw, 2017). In recent years, with increase in plastic consumption following industrial development, a large amount of plastic waste is being generated, and due to its light weight, inertness, durability, and strong structural safety, biodegradation and natural decomposition of PS are extremely challenging (Gautam et al., 2007;Pushpadass et al., 2010). ...
Tenebrio molitor larvae, as known as edible insects, has advantages of being rich in protein, and has been recognized as a suitable alternate protein source for broiler and pig feed. Moreover, given their ability to biodegrade polystyrene, a major pollutant, Tenebrio molitor larvae has been proposed as an innovative solution to environmental problems. In the present study, we investigated the toxicity of Tenebrio molitor larvae powder (TMlp) ingested with expanded-polystyrene (W/ eps) through in vitro and in vivo experiments. The objective of this study was to determine whether TMlp W/ eps can be applied as livestock alternative protein source. For in vitro experiments, cytotoxicity test was performed to investigate the effects of TMlp-extract on the viability of estrogen-dependent MCF-7 cells. The possibility of estrogen response was investigated in two groups: Expanded-polystyrene-fed (W/ eps) TMlp group and without expanded-polystyrene-fed (W/o eps) TMlp group. For in vivo experiments, The male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided based on the dosage of TMlp administered and oral administration was performed to every day for 5 weeks. A toxicological assessments were performed, which included clinical signs, food consumption, body and organ weights, hematology, serum chemistry, and hematoxylin and eosin staining of liver and kidney. There were no specific adverse effect of TMlp W/ eps-related findings under the experimental conditions of this study, but further studies on both sexes and animal species differences should be investigated. In conclusion, TMlp W/ eps was considered non-toxic and observed to be applicable as an alternative protein source for livestock feed.
... It is highly flammable because it can be easily ignited and cause huge fires and losses of life. For instance, at Dusseldorf International Airport and channel tunnel where polystyrene was inside the railcar that caught fire [39]. Polystyrene is known to be hazardous household waste and is also linked to adverse effects in humans since it is a possible carcinogen [40]. ...
This study considers the suitability of using environmental wastes (polystyrene foam, sawdust and eggshell) for the development of composite materials for ceiling boards. The materials were collected from dumping sites and processed accordingly. The elemental compositions of the processed sawdust and eggshell were examined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (ASS) andplasma-optical emission spectrometer (Optimal 3100XL Perkin Elmer) respectively. Properties of the composite samples were determined using appropriate ASTM standards (ASTM D570, C109-95, D3479, E1530 and D7336/D7336M). The results show that the composite with a mix ratio of 5% Polystyrene, 10% sawdust and 40% eggshell exhibited the most suitable properties for ceiling board production or indoor uses in building: water absorption (0.52 and 6.17% for 2 and 24hours respectively), tensile strength (2.362 N/mm2), elongation at break (0.677 mm), compressive strength (0.1575 N/mm2), energy to break (0.016 N.m) and thermal conductivity of 0.0221 W/M.K. Thus, the production of suitable ceiling board using some bio-wastes can be domesticated in Nigeria.
... Polystyrene is a synthetic thermoplastic made from the polymerisation of the styrene monomer and has been commercialised since 1931 (Farrelly and Shaw, 2017;Lassen et al., 2019). It is one of the most widely used plastics in the EU, with European production estimated at 2 million tonnes in 2018 and with a demand of 1.5 million tonnes for EPS resin (PlasticsEurope, 2019). ...
... International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry recommends that the use of semi-systematic or trivial names should be kept to a minimum to avoid confusion and misnomers, which has occurred for EPS and XPS (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry [IUPAC], 2008; Mormann et al., 2017). "Styrofoam, " a trademark invented by Dow Chemical in 1941 for a blue coloured type of XPS used in building insulation, is a widespread and commonly used misnomer for EPS or PS in general (Farrelly and Shaw, 2017;Wagner, 2020). As early as 1960 this misnomer also appeared in the academic literature, most surprisingly, in a study commissioned by the Dow Chemical Company themselves, where EPS is referred to as Styrofoam (Waite, 1960). ...
The Single-Use Plastics Directive (EU) 72/2019/904 is the main legislation governing plastic pollution, inclusive of marine plastic pollution in the European Union (EU). The Directive has issued market restrictions on several single-use plastic products which contribute to marine plastic pollution, including foamed polystyrene products made of expanded polystyrene (EPS). However, extruded polystyrene (XPS) which is commonly used in the same single-use plastics products as EPS has been omitted from the market placement restrictions within the scope of the Directive. This has subsequently compromised the Single-Use Plastics Directive’s effectiveness for reducing marine plastic pollution and hinders the efforts of related EU instruments such as the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Descriptor 10 toward achieving Good Environmental Status across the marine environment in the EU. This paper provides some background on EPS and XPS, and discusses plastic pollution policy making in the EU, while further addressing the role of quantitative data in the European Joint Research Centre’s Technical Report on Top Marine Beach Litter Items in the EU for the formulation of policy regulating foamed polystyrene derived marine plastic pollution. We also provide an overview of how the communication gaps in the polymer science nomenclature for polystyrene may have contributed to the development of misnomers for extruded and EPS, consequently compromising necessary data gathering efforts. Our perspective hopes to incite conversations on communication gaps between scientists and policy makers and emphasise the need for gathering quantitative disaggregated data on the foamed polystyrene market to inform European plastic pollution legislation adequately.
