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Study design overview. Participants (n = 32) were randomly assigned to consume 2, 4, or 6 g/day fish oil or placebo. = damaging bout of eccentric exercise; = perceived muscle soreness; = blood collection for assessment of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase; = muscular performance (vertical jump, 40-yard dash, T-test agility, maximal voluntary isometric contraction).
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Fish oils (FOs) are rich in omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been purported to enhance recovery of muscular performance and reduce soreness post-exercise. However, the most effective FO dose for optimizing recovery remains unclear. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effect of FO supplementation dosing on...
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Citations
... Evidence suggests n-3 can influence key exercise recovery markers, including Creactive protein (CRP) [32][33][34], interleukin 6 (IL-6) [34][35][36], and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) [35,37], which are inflammatory markers; creatine kinase (CK) [34,[37][38][39], a muscle damage marker; and various oxidative stress markers [40][41][42][43]. ...
... Several studies evaluated the effects of n-3 supplementation on muscle damage and recovery post-exercise, with varying results [33][34][35][37][38][39]41,45,46]. One study reported a significant reduction in CK levels post-exercise with supplementation (600 mg EPA + 260 mg DHA) [38]. ...
... Another found that green-lipped mussel oil (~58 mg EPA + 44 mg DHA) significantly attenuated CK post-exercise, further highlighting the benefits of n-3 for reducing muscle damage markers [37]. Finally, a study assessing different amounts of n-3 observed the most significant reduction in CK levels in the 6000 mg group, compared to the placebo, 2000 mg, and 4000 mg groups post-exercise, further demonstrating decreased markers of muscle damage following n-3 supplementation [39]. ...
Background/Objectives: Omega-3 fatty acids (n-3), recognized for their anti-inflammatory and brain health benefits, are being studied to enhance cognitive function, aid physical recovery, and reduce injury rates among military service members (SMs). Given the unique demands faced by this tactical population, this systematic review aims to evaluate the evidence of n-3 to support physical and mental resilience and overall performance. Methods: This review was conducted in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and includes articles that assessed n-3 status or implemented n-3 interventions in relation to physical and cognitive performance, recovery, and injury outcomes (2006 to 2024). Of the 1606 articles yielded in screening through Covidence, 755 were irrelevant, leaving 226 studies for full-text eligibility. Of those 226 studies, 165 studies were excluded, and 61 studies were included in this review. Results: The results highlighted evidence-based findings in five key areas where omega-3 fatty acids are being evaluated to benefit military service members. These key areas include cardiopulmonary function, exercise recovery, cognitive function, injury recovery, and strength and power. While existing research suggests promising benefits, the most significant evidence was seen with cardiopulmonary function, exercise recovery, and cognitive function. Conclusions: Current research is promising and shows potential benefits, but the results are inconclusive and inconsistent. Future research is needed to determine optimal n-3 status, dose, and possibly type of n-3 across the various performance outcomes. Understanding these gaps in research will be essential to creating evidence-based n-3 guidelines for optimal performance of SMs.
... Another study demonstrated that subjective muscle soreness (as measured using VAS following a 60 minutes of downhill treadmill running) was decreased with four weeks of daily supplementation with an ω-3 PUFA supplement containing both EPA (2,145 mg) and DHA (858 mg) at 24-hours postexercise when compared to placebo in young healthy males [105]. Furthermore, Lembke et al. [106] and Vandusseldorp et al. [111] showed participants reported DOMS was lower for up to 96 hours post-exercise in an ω-3 PUFA supplemented group versus placebo. Finally, a study done in rugby athletes supplementing with ω-3 PUFA demonstrated that lower body muscle soreness had a moderate beneficial effect during recovery when compared to a placebo supplement [100]. ...
... Rajabi et al. [108] showed that the daily ingestion of two grams of ω-3 PUFA for one month maintained leg press muscle strength in young healthy adults compared to a reduction for those receiving placebo. Furthermore, 7.5 weeks of ω-3 PUFA supplementation (6 g/d, containing 2.000 mg EPA and 1,800 mg DHA) reduced muscle damage 60 minutes after performing eccentric squat exercises, as measured by the maintenance of vertical jump performance which was similar to pre-supplementation levels [111]. Heileson et al. [103] also observed that the daily ingestion of four grams of DHA and EPA for seven weeks improved leg press muscle strength compared to placebo in young males. ...
... A number of studies have assessed the effects of ω-3 PUFA supplementation with EPA and/or DHA on indices of skeletal muscle soreness (delayed onset muscle soreness [DOMS]), performance (strength and/or power output), range of motion (ROM), indirect measures of damage (creatine kinase [CK], lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]), and inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein [CRP], interleukin-6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α]) following exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD)[100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]. Collectively, results across studies suggest that DOMS may be reduced with ω-3 PUFA supplementation. ...
Position Statement: The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) presents this position based on a critical examination of the literature surrounding the effects of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (ω-3 PUFA) supplementation on exercise performance, recovery, and brain health. This position stand is intended to provide a scientific foundation for athletes, dietitians, trainers, and other practitioners regarding the effects of supplemental ω-3 PUFA in healthy and athletic populations. The following conclusions represent the official position of the ISSN: Athletes may be at a higher risk for ω-3 PUFA insufficiency.
Diets rich in ω-3 PUFA, including supplements, are effective strategies for increasing ω-3 PUFA levels.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), has been shown to enhance endurance capacity and cardiovascular function during aerobic-type exercise.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation may not confer a muscle hypertrophic benefit in young adults.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation in combination with resistance training may improve strength in a dose- and duration-dependent manner.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation may decrease subjective measures of muscle soreness following intense exercise.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation can positively affect various immune cell responses in athletic populations.
Prophylactic ω-3 PUFA supplementation may offer neuroprotective benefits in athletes exposed to repeated head impacts.
ω-3 PUFA supplementation is associated with improved sleep quality.
ω-3 PUFA are classified as prebiotics; however, studies on the gut microbiome and gut health in athletes are currently lacking.
... In the present study, participants ingested four capsules of omega-3 supplement produced in Lugano, Switzerland by the Vivatune company. Each capsule contains 1000 mg of fish oil, which includes 500 mg of EPA and 100 mg of DHA [38]. Additionally, participants consumed 30 g of whey protein supplement powder manufactured by the Karen company in Tehran, Iran, dissolved in 150 mL of water [39]. ...
Background: Adequate nutrition is crucial for athletes to enhance performance and recovery. This study investigates the acute effects of omega-3 and whey protein supplementation before and after exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) on lower-body strength, explosive power, and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) in female futsal players. Method: A randomized, cross-over, placebo-controlled, double-blind study involved 15 female futsal players (Age: 22.93 ± 0.54 years; Height: 159.60 ± 1.16 cm; Weight: 56.95 ± 1.79 kg). Participants completed three conditions: pre-EIMD (1000 mg fish oil, 30 g whey protein, 2 h before EIMD), post-EIMD (same supplementation, within 2 h after EIMD), and placebo (PLA, 2 g starch). EIMD involved 200 vertical jumps with 15% body-weighted vests. Metrics including Sargent jump height (VJH), thigh swelling (Sw-T), pressure pain threshold (PPT), V-sit and reach flexibility test (VSFT), range of motion (ROM), relative peak torque (RPT), average power (AP), and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) were recorded 48 h post-EIMD. DOMS was assessed via a visual analog scale (VAS) multiple times. A one-week washout period was employed. Results: Pre-EIMD supplementation significantly increased VJH (p = 0.001) compared to PLA and Post-EIMD (p = 0.033). MVIC45° improved significantly in Pre-EIMD vs. PLA (p = 0.001). Improvements were observed in muscle strength metrics, with significant increases in APflx60°/s (pre-EIMD vs. PLA, p = 0.001; pre-EIMD vs. post-EIMD, p = 0.008), APext60°/s (Pre-EIMD vs. PLA, p = 0.030), and APext180°/s (Post-EIMD vs. PLA, p = 0.023). DOMS was lower in both Pre-EIMD and Post-EIMD conditions immediately and at 12 h post-EIMD (p = 0.009; p = 0.030) than PLA. No significant differences were found in Sw-T, PPT, VSFT, ROM, or APflx180°/s. Conclusions: Acute omega-3 and whey protein supplementation, particularly before EIMD, improves strength and power and reduces DOMS in female futsal players. Supplement timing may be critical for optimizing recovery and performance in high-demand sports.
... Research has demonstrated the positive impact of omega-3 PUFAs on relieving muscle soreness and improving the recovery time of muscle performance [24]. A recent trial investigated the efficacy of omega-3-rich fish oil as a reliever for muscle soreness [55]. The authors supplemented 41 resistance-trained individuals with either 2.0, 4.0, or 6.0 g/day doses of fish oil and assessed them over a series of seven weeks. ...
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play a critical yet underappreciated role in muscle health, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Through a review of current literature, we analyze the effects of these nutrients on muscle protein synthesis, mass, strength, and recovery. Studies demonstrate that omega-3 PUFAs enhance muscle protein synthesis via the mTOR pathway and possess anti-inflammatory properties that may reduce muscle damage and atrophy, particularly in older adults. Their potential to improve muscle function and mitigate exercise-induced damage is also reviewed, highlighting relevance for athletes and active individuals. Further research on optimal dosages and long-term effects of omega-3 supplementation is needed, providing a basis for future studies and practical recommendations for leveraging these nutrients to support muscle health.
... Five studies [16,17,35,37,38] were considered "excellent quality" and 8 [33,34,36,[39][40][41][42][43] as "very good quality" according to McMaster [30] (Table 1). Also, according to the PEDro scale [31], 10 studies [16,17,[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]42,44] had a rating of "excellent quality" and 3 studies [33,41,43] of "good quality" ( Table 2). ...
... Five studies [16,17,35,37,38] were considered "excellent quality" and 8 [33,34,36,[39][40][41][42][43] as "very good quality" according to McMaster [30] (Table 1). Also, according to the PEDro scale [31], 10 studies [16,17,[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]42,44] had a rating of "excellent quality" and 3 studies [33,41,43] of "good quality" ( Table 2). ...
... Five studies [16,17,35,37,38] were considered "excellent quality" and 8 [33,34,36,[39][40][41][42][43] as "very good quality" according to McMaster [30] (Table 1). Also, according to the PEDro scale [31], 10 studies [16,17,[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]42,44] had a rating of "excellent quality" and 3 studies [33,41,43] of "good quality" ( Table 2). Table 3 shows the results of the RoB assessment tool [32] applied to the studies in this review. ...
Omega-3 is a family of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which have been used to treat a wide variety of chronic diseases, due mainly to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, among others. In this context, omega-3 could be post-exercise recovery agent and sports supplement that could improve performance by preserving and promoting skeletal muscle mass and strength. No conclusive evidence, however, exists about the potential effects of omega-3 on post-exercise biomarkers and sports performance in physically healthy adults. Based on the PRISMA in Exercise, Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine, and Sports Science (PERSiST) guidelines, we systematically reviewed studies indexed in Web of Science, Scopus, and Medline to assess the effects of omega-3 on post-exercise inflammation, muscle damage, oxidant response, and sports performance in physically healthy adults. The search was performed on original articles published in the last 10 years up to 5 May 2024, with a controlled trial design in which omega-3 supplementation was compared with a control group. Among 14,971 records identified in the search, 13 studies met the selection criteria. The duration of the interventions ranged from 1 day to 26 weeks of supplementation and the doses used were heterogeneous. Creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group in 3 of the 4 studies where these markers were analyzed. C-reactive protein (CRP) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group of 2 of the 13 studies where this marker was analyzed. The delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) gave mixed results. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) showed improvements with supplementation, but tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) displayed no differences. The consumption of n-3 PUFAs improved some indicators of oxidative stress such as reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ratio. Additional evidence is needed to establish clear recommendations regarding the dose and length of n-3 PUFA supplements. These may benefit the post-exercise inflammatory response, mitigate muscle damage, and decrease oxidative stress caused by exercise. However, studies did not evaluate omega-3 status at baseline or following supplementation and therefore the observations must be treated with caution
... org). All (VanDusseldorp et al. 2018(VanDusseldorp et al. , 2020Visconti et al. 2021) research team members involved with data collection were blinded to participant group information. All participants were thoroughly familiarized with the study design; specifically, the diet and physical activity log requirements, timing, and procedures of blood collection, 1RM protocol, exercise trial, and supplementation regimen. ...
... A standardized bout of resistance exercise involving ten sets of eight repetitions at 70% 1RM squats using a Smith machine (Pro-Elite Strength Systems, Salt Lake City, UT) was completed by all participants. The protocol used has demonstrated a consistent induction of muscle damage in resistance-trained males (VanDusseldorp et al. 2018(VanDusseldorp et al. , 2020Visconti et al. 2021). Moreover, post-exercise responses of this protocol has been shown to be affected by the BCAA supplementation used in this study (VanDusseldorp et al. 2018). ...
Purpose
Autophagy and heat shock protein (HSP) response are proteostatic systems involved in the acute and adaptive responses to exercise. These systems may upregulate sequentially following cellular stress including acute exercise, however, currently few data exist in humans. This study investigated the autophagic and HSP responses to acute intense lower body resistance exercise in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with and without branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) supplementation.
Methods
Twenty resistance-trained males (22.3 ± 1.5 yr; 175.4 ± .7 cm; 86.4 ± 15.6 kg) performed a bout of intense lower body resistance exercise and markers of autophagy and HSP70 were measured immediately post- (IPE) and 2, 4, 24, 48, and 72 h post-exercise. Prior to resistance exercise, 10 subjects were randomly assigned to BCAA supplementation of 0.22 g/kg/d for 5 days pre-exercise and up to 72 h following exercise while the other 10 subjects consumed a placebo (PLCB).
Results
There were no difference in autophagy markers or HSP70 expression between BCAA and PLCB groups. LC3II protein expression was significantly lower 2 and 4 h post-exercise compared to pre-exercise. LC3II: I ratio was not different at any time point compared to pre-exercise. Protein expression of p62 was lower IPE, 2, and 4 h post-exercise and elevated 24 h post-exercise. HSP70 expression was elevated 48 and 72 h post-exercise.
Conclusions
Autophagy and HSP70 are upregulated in PBMCs following intense resistance exercise with autophagy increasing initially post-exercise and HSP response in the latter period. Moreover, BCAA supplementation did not affect this response.
Graphical Abstract
... Because of the differing formulations of EPA and DHA within trials, it is difficult to ascertain whether EPA or DHA alone is causing the observed effects or if EPA and DHA work synergistically or antagonistically. Although recent investigations have delved into the dose-response relationship of LC omega-3 PUFA and recovery from EIMD (9,10), no studies have characterized the effect of EPA and DHA individually on functional skeletal muscle outcomes. Although EPA and DHA seem to exert similar effects on inflammatory markers (11), the recovery effects associated with EPA and DHA may be due to their incorporation into the skeletal muscle phospholipid. ...
... The sample size estimation for this project was 28-36, justified by a priori power analysis in G*power using a target effect size of f = 0.25, an alpha of 0.05, and a power of 0.80, which determined that 28 subjects (7 per group) were required for participation. Our sample size estimation was similar to previous investigations (9,10,22). Individuals were excluded if they had current and/or history of any musculoskeletal or neuromuscular disorders, had any self-reported illness or conditions that may interfere with the study parameters or put the participant at significant risk, had a body fat percentage >26%, had aVO 2max ≥ 55 mL·kg −1 ·min −1 , or reported the use of fish oil supplements within the past 6 months or fish intake ≥2 servings per week. According to a thorough review of downhill running protocols by Bontemps et al. (23), the magnitude of EIMD is attenuated in endurance trained individuals, hence our requirement for aVO 2max < 55 mL·kg −1 ·min −1 . ...
... On visit 3, participants performed an eccentrically biased aerobic exercise test followed by a plyometrics component adapted from two separate protocols (9,29). On a modified treadmill positioned to be downhill at a grade of 16%, participants ran for 20 min at 70%VO 2max . ...
Purpose
Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), may enhance recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). However, it is unclear if the effects are due to EPA, DHA, or both. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effect of EPA + DHA, EPA and DHA compared to placebo (PL) on muscular recovery.
Methods
Thirty males were randomized to 4 g·d ⁻¹ EPA + DHA (n = 8), EPA (n = 8), DHA (n = 7), or PL (n = 7). Following 7-weeks supplementation, a downhill running (20-min, 70% VO 2 max, -16% gradient) plus jumping lunges (5x20 reps, 2-min rest intervals) muscle damage protocol was performed. Indices of muscle damage, soreness, muscle function, and inflammation were measured at baseline and throughout recovery. The omega-3 index (O3i, %EPA + %DHA in erythrocytes) was used to track tissue EPA and DHA status.
Results
After supplementation, the O3i was significantly higher than PL in all experimental groups ( p < .001). Leg press performance was lower in the PL group at 24H compared to EPA ( p = .019) and at 72H for EPA ( p = .004) and DHA ( p = .046). Compared to PL, muscle soreness was lower in the DHA ( p = .015) and EPA ( p = .027) groups at 48H. Albeit non-significant, EPA + DHA tended to attenuate muscle soreness ( d = 1.37) and leg strength decrements ( d = 0.75) compared to PL. Jump performance and power metrics improved more rapidly in the EPA and DHA groups (time effects: p < .001). Measures of inflammation, range of motion, and muscle swelling were similar between groups ( p > .05).
Conclusions
Compared to PL, 4 g·d ⁻¹ of EPA or DHA for 52 days improves certain aspects of recovery from EIMD. EPA + DHA did not clearly enhance recovery. Equivalent dosing of EPA + DHA may blunt the performance effects observed in EPA or DHA alone.
... The association between exercise-induced muscle damage and EPA and DHA supplementation has been fairly well researched [27,85,86]. In doses varying from 0.54 to 4.20 g EPA + DHA administered daily for between 7 and 70 days, EPA and DHA principally reduce muscle soreness regardless of dose, duration or the muscle-damage model employed [27,71,[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95]. In a field-based study in rugby union players, Black et al. observed that EPA + DHA supplementation reduced fatigue after 20 days and reduced muscle soreness that coincided with an improved jump [71]. ...
... Unlike muscle soreness, the preservation of power and strength may be dose-dependent. For example, Van Dusseldorp et al. provided participants with 1.40, 2.80 or 4.20 g EPA + DHA per day for about 52 days before and during exercise-induced muscle damage [93]. Interestingly, the highest-dose group experienced the fastest recovery in jump height (1 h) and strength (72 h). ...
Fatty fish, which include mackerel, herring, salmon and sardines, and certain species of algae (e.g., Schizochytrium sp., Crytthecodiniumcohnii and Phaeodactylumtricornutum) are the only naturally rich sources of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). EPA and DHA are the most biologically active members of the n-3 PUFA family. Limited dietary sources and fluctuating content of EPA and DHA in fish raise concerns about the status of EPA and DHA among athletes, as confirmed in a number of studies. The beneficial effects of EPA and DHA include controlling inflammation, supporting nervous system function, maintaining muscle mass after injury and improving training adaptation. Due to their inadequate intake and beneficial health-promoting effects, athletes might wish to consider using supplements that provide EPA and DHA. Here, we provide an overview of the effects of EPA and DHA that are relevant to athletes and discuss the pros and cons of supplements as a source of EPA and DHA for athletes.
... There is increasing demand for nutritional strategies to reduce the severity of muscle damage or to expedite muscle recovery from EIMD. A variety of plant-and marinederived foods to support muscle recovery following EIMD have been researched, and variable efficacy of polyphenol-rich foods and marine oils in various formats in accelerating the recovery of muscle performance and reducing DOMS following EIMD has been reported [8][9][10]. ...
... Previous intervention studies have postulated that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of GSM may only be partially explained by the bioactive properties of EPA and DHA [17]. This is because the total dose of ω-3 PUFAs used in these studies was lower than the daily dose of EPA and DHA previously shown to reduce EIMD [9,10]. Given that the daily dose of PUFAs consumed in this study was lower compared with GSM oil intervention studies, it is plausible that other bioactive lipid and non-lipid constituents may act in synergy with EPA and DHA to promote muscle recovery. ...
Unaccustomed eccentric exercise results in muscle damage limiting physical performance for several days. This study investigated if Greenshell™ mussel (GSM) powder consumption expedited muscle recovery from eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Methods: Twenty untrained adult men were recruited into a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study and were randomly assigned to receive the GSM powder or placebo treatment first. Participants consumed their allocated intervention for four weeks then completed a bench-stepping exercise that induced muscle damage to the eccentrically exercised leg. Muscle function, soreness and biomarkers of muscle damage, oxidative stress and inflammation were measured before exercise, immediately after exercise and 24, 48 and 72 h post exercise. GSM powder promoted muscle function recovery, significantly improving (p < 0.05) isometric and concentric peak torque at 48 h and 72 h post exercise, respectively. Participants on the GSM treatment had faster dissipation of soreness, with significant treatment × time interactions for affective (p = 0.007) and Visual Analogue Scale-assessed pain (p = 0.018). At 72 h, plasma creatine kinase concentrations in the GSM group were lower (p < 0.05) compared with the placebo group. This study provides evidence for GSM powder being effective in supporting muscle recovery from EIMD.
... supplementation with Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid is presently considered an ergogenic aid for athletes (Thielecke & Blannin, 2020). Preliminary studies showed that taking 6 g of fish oil can optimize muscle soreness recovery after heavy exercise (VanDusseldorp et al., 2020). while a daily dose of 250-500 mg/day is recommended (Murphy & McGlory, 2021). ...
The use of natural or conventional-based supplementation has become a popular strategy among athletes seeking to reduce oxidative stress, improve recovery, and enhance athletic performance. This literature review searched four reputable international electronic databases, including PubMed, MedRxiv, Cochrane, and Clinical Trial.gov until December 2021, using Boolean operators with keywords and Mesh methods. The keywords used were "Supplementation", AND "Muscle Fatigue Recovery", AND "Athletes", which yielded 24 articles as study findings. The literature review found that exhaustive exercise can induce a neutrophil antioxidant response by increasing antioxidant enzymes. Nutritional supplements, specifically antioxidant supplements, Branched Chain Amino Acid (BCAA), citrulline, omega-3, and caffeine, have been scientifically proven to reduce oxidative damage, which can block signaling pathways related to muscle hypertrophy. In order to combat muscle fatigue in athletes based on this research (literature review), natural ingredients and synthetic nutritional supplements have been utilized as dietary interventions. This literature review identified numerous natural micronutrients and synthetic supplements used in sports that possess anti-fatigue properties, decrease oxidative stress and enhance athletes' endurance capacity. The effectiveness of nutritional supplements in addressing muscle fatigue may vary based on the various ingredients in the supplements. However, natural-based supplements have become a preferred option among athletes and coaches currently.
