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Study area. (a) Location of Brazzaville and Kinshasa cities. ROC = Republic of Congo; DRC = Democratic Republic of Congo. (b) Distribution of all outlets, sample squares and buffers used in this study. (c) Detail of the different outlets in Brazzaville, as an example of the mapping undertaken in this project.
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The trade of bushmeat from rural areas to supply burgeoning cities is a major conservation and livelihood concern. Using a whole-city sampling strategy we mapped the distribution and numbers of meat outlets in the Kinshasa–Brazzaville metropolitan area, two neighboring capital cities in Central Africa. We show that both cities differ in the number...
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... Driven by a blend of factors ranging from status to cultural affinity for wild meat, demand for wild meat is widespread in urban areas where alternative forms of protein are available [4] turning traditional subsistence hunting into a profit-driven, commercialized industry [7]. The urban appetite for wild meat, coupled with easier access to remote areas [10] and trade networks that connect remote areas with urban areas, has led to the establishment of large wildlife trade hubs that support soaring rates of wild meat consumption in cities [11]. Wild meat trading at these urban markets often involves species protected by national and international laws limiting or banning hunting [3,12]. ...
The commercial trade in wild meat is booming in Central Africa. Addressing this issue is a global priority because the trade poses a major threat to biodiversity and human health. We investigated the impact of socioeconomic factors, public health emergencies, and conservation efforts on the wild meat trade using daily surveys of wild meat markets on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea (EG), from 1997 through 2021. Bioko is an ideal location for examining how external factors impact the wild meat market trade. Although small, the island has large areas of intact forest that host populations of commercially valuable wildlife; low-cost protein substitutes are available; and Malabo, the island’s only large metropolitan area and wild meat trading hub, hosts a wealthy class of urbanites. We found significant associations between global market trends and the wild meat trade, especially China’s foreign investment and oil production in the US and EG. Economic crises like EG’s 2009 economic downturn that followed a global crash in oil prices and reduced production, redirected demand towards cheaper mainland wildlife carcasses amid reduced consumer demand. Public health emergencies had the most comprehensive impact on the wild meat trade. The 2014 Ebola outbreak and the COVID-19 pandemic both induced shifts in market demand, and the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted trade routes, affecting both urban and rural markets. Internally, we observed market decentralization over the last decade and changes in wildlife supply chains during public health emergencies. Conservation policies, including anti-poaching measures and educational outreach, temporarily influenced wildlife market trends, sometimes leading to trading surges in endangered primate carcasses. Our study highlights the importance of monitoring global market trends, public health campaigns, and adapting conservation strategies to disrupt wildlife supply chains and curb consumer demand for wild meat.
... Furthermore, demand for bushmeat is also high because it is believed to have a better taste than alternatives (Robinson & Bodmer, 1999;Friant, Paige, & Goldberg, 2015). The bushmeat demand from cities, therefore, creates a market and an opportunity as source of income for the growing populations in the rural areas, which are facing lack of alternative sources of income and unemployment (Nasi, Taber, & Van Vliet, 2011;Fa et al., 2019;Luiselli et al., 2020). In addition the lack of alternative protein sources also influences hunter behavior by creating a local demand because in poor areas, bushmeat is readily available and is cheaper (Brashares et al., 2004;Nasi, Taber, & Van Vliet, 2011). ...
The hunter is the key actor in unsustainable hunting of bushmeat in African forests and his behavior is driven by socioeconomic factors among others. However, not much is known about the effectiveness of incentive‐based conservation actions providing socioeconomic benefits to reduce hunting. This study, therefore, examined how changes in the socioeconomic situation of hunters brought about by reciprocal environmental agreements affects their hunting behavior. During a project implemented near the Dja Faunal Reserve (Cameroon), we recorded changes in socioeconomic characteristics of hunters for 15 months spanning 3 years. Bushmeat offtake and hunting effort parameters were also recorded. Comparisons of the evolution of these parameters over the years were made between hunters who signed the agreements and those who did not. We found that signatory hunters were older and had larger households than non‐signatories, and they earned more income from cocoa sales. Although both groups of hunters had similar characteristics regarding hunting behavior at the start of the project, signatory hunters harvested less bushmeat at the end of project. More time was spent in hunting by non‐signatory hunters compared to signatories who hunted less at the end of our monitoring period. Signatory hunters hunted less with firearms than non‐signatories, and they consumed more and sold less of their catches compared to non‐signatories. This study underlines the importance of reciprocal environmental agreements as an incentive‐based conservation scheme that can reduce hunting pressure. These findings show that economic incentives provided to individuals through reciprocal environment agreements can promote livelihood paradigm shifts, alleviating poverty, decreasing dependence on natural resources and benefiting animal conservation.
... Flight path limitations may explain why the distribution of origin countries was narrower than what was found in previous studies where, for example, a significant proportion of bushmeat products arriving in Paris originated from the Central African Republic (CAR; [9]), yet there are no direct flights from CAR to Belgium. Nevertheless, it is apparent that most bushmeat is being imported from known hotspots of trade activity in West and Central Africa [13,33]. A pan-European study is required to estimate the full scale of illegal bushmeat trafficking to Europe, the routes used, the associated risks for biodiversity and health, and the new measures needed to limit this import and its risks. ...
The carriage of bushmeat into the European Union is an infringement of EU Animal Health and Wildlife Trade legislation and poses a threat to biodiversity and public health. To explore the nature and scale of the international bushmeat trade, seized leaking luggage and passengers arriving at Brussels Zaventem airport from sub-Saharan Africa between 2017 and 2018 were searched for "meat" (bushmeat and livestock) by border control authorities. Visual identification, radiography and genetic analysis were applied to derive information from seized specimens, including at least ten CITES-listed species. We estimate that an average of 3.9 t of bushmeat is smuggled monthly through Brussels. The average consignment of meat seized per passenger was 2.8 kg and 4 kg of bushmeat or domestic livestock meat, respectively. The international trafficking of bushmeat is evidently active, yet penalties are rarely enforced; hence we provide suggestions to simplify law enforcement procedures.
... Urban markets that commercialize animals and medicinal plants are spaces that promote agrobiodiversity and wild plant use, but they also have multiple other functions in cities (Ladio et al. 2013;Fa et al. 2019). In addition to economic and social purposes, it is important to mention the conservation of knowledge and its transfer to other people, both consumers and sellers (McMillen et al. 2012). ...
Urban ecosystems differ from non-urban ones in the strong and rapid biocultural dynamics generated by the interactions between people from different cultures, at large spatial and temporal scales and very fast rates. This opinion piece explores the concept of urban ethnobiology as a critical field of research that investigates the complex and dynamic biocultural systems that exist in urban environments. We argue that interactions between humans and other life forms in urban ecosystems are influenced by a characteristic set of social, cultural, and political factors that are linked to urban environments, such as infrastructure development, population density, and governance structures. We emphasize the need for an interdisciplinary approach that brings together experts from different fields to study the inherent complexity of these systems. By examining the sociocultural dynamics that shape the way urban biodiversity is perceived, used, and managed, we can gain deeper insights into the different dimensions of socio-cultural biodiversity in urban areas.
... More intensive production systems for wildlife, and situations with increased animal density and stress increases pathogen pressure and risk (Adapted from Plowright et al ., 2017 ). markets are much larger, with higher quantities and diversity of wild, captive-bred, and domestic animals being sold together, mostly in large urban settings (Cronin et al., 2015;Kurpiers et al., 2016;Fa et al., 2019;Latinne et al., 2020;Zhong et al., 2020). The contextual diversity of wildlife trade ( Fig. 2) precludes governance using one-size-fits-all approaches and necessitates nuanced responses (Fukushima et al., 2021). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath are the most significant socio-economic crises in modern history. The pandemic’s devastating impacts have prompted urgent policy and regulatory action to reduce the risks of future spillover events and pandemics. Stronger regulatory measures for the trade of wildlife are central to discussions of a policy response. A variety of measures, including broad bans on the trade and sale of wildlife to banning specific species for human consumption are among a suite of discussed options. However, the wildlife trade is diverse, complex, and important for the livelihoods of millions of people globally. We argue that reducing the risk of future pandemics stemming from the wildlife trade must follow established principles of governance which include being equitable, responsive, robust, and effective. We demonstrate how incorporating these principles will support the development of context-specific, culturally sensitive, and inclusive responses that recognize the on-the-ground complexity of disease emergence and the social-ecological systems in which the wildlife trade occurs.
... We developed a global map of bushmeat activities in rural tropical and subtropical regions by using an ensemble geospatial modeling approach combined with 221 occurrence points extracted from previously published reports. The resulting map of 5 × 5 km pixels was consistent with published data on occurrence of local bushmeat activities (16,17), and with previous global mapping of efforts that focused on bushmeat hunting (15). We assessed the predictive capacity of our map by using 2 complementary approaches. ...
Human populations that hunt, butcher, and sell bush- meat (bushmeat activities) are at increased risk for zoo- notic pathogen spillover. Despite associations with global epidemics of severe illnesses, such as Ebola and mpox, quantitative assessments of bushmeat activities are lacking. However, such assessments could help priori- tize pandemic prevention and preparedness efforts. We used geospatial models that combined published data on bushmeat activities and ecologic and demographic driv- ers to map the distribution of bushmeat activities in rural regions globally. The resulting map had high predictive capacity for bushmeat activities (true skill statistic = 0.94). The model showed that mammal species richness and deforestation were principal drivers of the geographic dis- tribution of bushmeat activities and that countries in West and Central Africa had the highest proportion of land area associated with bushmeat activities. These findings could help prioritize future surveillance of bushmeat activities and forecast emerging zoonoses at a global scale.
... For humans, wildlife represents a source of varying interest in economic, cultural, tourist, scientific, and food terms. Regarding this last point, the meat of wild animals, called "bushmeat" by African populations [1], is a significant source of protein for hundreds of millions of people around the world [2]. Bushmeat consumption provides a large share of animal protein for many rural families in Central Africa [2,3]. ...
Wild animals harbor pathogens that can be infectious agents for humans, including parasites. This study aimed to identify gastrointestinal parasites and assess their prevalence and the potential risk for humans associated with consuming these animals. The research was conducted from August to December 2019. Parasitological analyses were carried out on the feces and intestines of 113 wild animals, including antelopes (24), duikers (58), porcupines (18), small monkeys (Cercop-ithecus) (8), nandinia (2), pangolin (1), genet (1), and a crocodile (1), from the Zadié Department in the province of Ogooué-Ivindo in the northeast of Gabon. The results revealed 15 taxa of gastrointestinal parasites, including nine nematodes: Strongylids (61/113), Strongyloides spp. (21/113), Ascaris spp. (21/113), Trichuris spp. (39/113), Capillaria spp. (9/113), Protostrongylus spp. (5/113), Enterobius spp. (8/113), Toxocara spp. (7/113) and Mammomonogamus spp. (5/113); three species of protozoa, namely Balantidium spp. (12/113), Eimeria spp. (17/113), and Entamoeba spp. (9/113); two species of trema-todes, namely Fasciola spp. (18/113) and Paramphistomum spp. (21/113); and cestode species, Taenia spp. (1/113). The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitism in these animals was 85.84% (97/113). In addition, among these parasitic taxa, some are potential pathogens for humans, such as Ascaris spp., Balantidium spp., Entamoeba spp., and Taenia spp. The consumption of games, particularly offal, infested by these parasites, could threaten human health.
... More research on the prevalence of wild meat consumption and its drivers has been conducted in West Africa and Central Africa than in East Africa. Additionally, across Africa, cultural, sociopsychological, and sociodemographical factors driving wild meat consumers' behaviors remain understudied [19][20][21]. Some studies show that wildlife illegal harvesting is determined by non-exhaustive ecological, social, and economic drivers such as the frequency of game species, poverty, countries/areas of provenance, ethnic groups, cultural values/beliefs, revenge from crop-raiding animals, lack of access to alternative incomes, heath issues, the distance to local markets, and/or the frequency of patrols [10,[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. ...
The African tropical forests host an inestimable number of resources, including food, medicine, vegetal and animal species. Among them, chimpanzees are threatened with extinction by human activities affecting their habitats, such as forest product harvesting, and/or more directly, snaring and trafficking. We aimed to better understand the spatial distribution of these illegal activities, and the reasons for setting snares and consuming wild meat in an agricultural landscape (subsistence farming and cash crops) densely populated near a protected area (Sebitoli, Northern part of Kibale National Park, Uganda). To carry out this study, we combined GPS records of illegal activities collected with group counts (in total, n = 339 tea workers, 678 villagers, and 1885 children) and individual interviews (n = 74 tea workers, 42 villagers, and 35 children). A quarter of illegal activities collected (n = 1661) targeted animal resources and about 60% were recorded in specific areas (southwest and northeast) of the Sebitoli chimpanzee home range. Wild meat consumption, which is illegal in Uganda, is a relatively common practice among participants (17.1% to 54.1% of respondents depending on actor types and census methods). However, consumers declared that they eat wild meat unfrequently (0.6 to 2.8 times per year). Being a young man coming from districts contiguous to Kibale National Park particularly raises the odds of consuming wild meat. Such an analysis contributes to the understanding of wild meat hunting among traditional rural and agricultural societies from East Africa.
... Hunting activities are therefore an important driver of increasing human pressure in our study area, aligning with previous findings documented for the Congo Basin (Nasi et al., 2011;Ziegler et al., 2016). Commercial hunting is highly linked to increased demand for bush meat in nearby cities, as well as increased access to roads (Ziegler et al., 2016;Fa et al., 2019). Roads also constitute an important additional indicator of human pressure within the DSPA, and our findings suggest that they play a significant role in contributing to ape and elephant distribution, with species gaining and maintaining priority habitat stability in landscape areas further from roads (Table 8). ...
The forests of the Congo Basin are an important home to some of the world’s most critically endangered species, including the central chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes), the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and the forest elephant (Loxodanta cyclotis). To contribute to the long-term sustainability of these species and their habitats within the Dzanga Sangha Protected Areas (DSPA) in the Central African Republic, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) developed an ecological monitoring program to assess the spatial drivers of species' habitat changes. Here, we assess and quantify chimpanzee, gorilla and elephant habitat suitability within the DSPA using data from two survey years (2015 and 2020), to identify priority habitat areas and recommend conservation measures to mitigate ongoing habitat changes. We found that priority chimpanzee habitats covered about 1383 km2 (30 %) of the entire DSPA in the year 2015, while priority gorilla and elephant habitats covered approximately 2569 km2 (56 %) and 3075 km2 (67 %) respectively. Priority habitat area for the three species declined by 4, 4.5 % and 9.8 % points respectively between 2015 and 2020, mostly due to increased human pressures. We further provide evidence that the Dzanga National Park represents a region of higher priority habitat for all three species owing to the reduced human pressure that has resulted from higher eco-guard patrol efforts. Based on our analysis, we recommend maintaining a nonviolent patrol presence to mitigate human pressures within remaining priority habitat areas, recognizing also the importance of collaboration with local communities to support long-term conservation goals.
... French and English terminology was used to capture all African regions, where West and Central Africa in particular have previously been identified as hotspots of bushmeat trade activity [23,24]. Consequently, we identified six public Facebook pages advertising the sale of bushmeat, all originating from West Africa (Côte d'Ivoire n = 5, Nigeria n = 1). ...
A B S T R A C T
Social media provides a platform for wildlife crime syndicates to access a global consumer-driven market. Whilst studies have uncovered the online trade in wildlife, the availability of wild meat (bushmeat) has not been assessed. To investigate the sale of wild meat online, we analysed 563 posts published between 2018 and 2022 from six West African Facebook pages selected using predetermined search criteria. Across 1511 images and 18 videos, we visually identified 25 bushmeat species-level taxa including mammals (six Rodentia, five Artiodactyla, three Carnivora, two Pholidota, one Primate, two Lagomorpha, one Hyracoidea), birds (three Galliformes) and reptiles (two Squamata), predominately advertised as smoked (63%) or fresh (30%) whole carcasses or portions. Among the species identified, 16% feature a status of concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Near Threatened to Endangered), 16% are listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Appendix I and II) and 24% are either fully or partially protected by local legislation. Images were commonly used as propaganda rather than to display inventory, where additional taxa protected from game hunting in West Africa, such as hornbill, were exclusively listed in captions. The advertisement of these protected and vulnerable species on the surface web indicates weak local and international legislative enforcement. Comparatively, when the same search criteria were applied to the deep web browser Tor no results were generated, reinforcing the idea that bushmeat vendors have no need to hide their activities online. Despite local and international trade restrictions, the taxa advertised feature similarities with bushmeat seizures reported in Europe, alluding to the interconnectedness of the trade facilitated by social media. We conclude that enhanced policy enforcement is essential to combat the online sale of bushmeat and mitigate the potential biodiversity and public health impacts.
