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In the United States, Asians appear disproportionately underrepresented in leadership roles, a puzzling phenomenon known as the “Bamboo Ceiling” (Hyun, 2005; Lu et al., 2020). We advance a social network explanation for this phenomenon: ethnic homophily. We theorize that East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese)—but not South Asians (e.g., ethnic Indians)...
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The “Bamboo Ceiling” refers to the perplexing phenomenon that, despite the educational and economic achievements of East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese, Koreans) in the United States, they are disproportionately underrepresented in leadership positions. To help elucidate this phenomenon, we propose a novel theoretical perspective: East Asians are und...
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... Third, whereas Experiment 1 involved only Asians (because we partnered with the company's Asian employee resource group), Experiment 2 recruited an ethnically diverse sample to assess whether debate training is similarly effective across different ethnic groups or especially effective for certain ethnic group(s). In particular, an increasing number of studies have found that East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese, Japanese) in the US tend to experience a "Bamboo Ceiling" in leadership partly due to their low assertiveness (Lu, 2022(Lu, , 2024bLu et al., 2020;Zhu, 2024), so we explored whether debate training would be more (vs. less) effective for ethnic East Asians relative to other ethnic groups. ...
To date, little is known about what interventions can help individuals attain leadership roles in organizations. To address this knowledge gap, we integrate insights from the communication and leadership literatures to test debate training as a novel intervention for leadership emergence. We propose that debate training can increase individuals’ leadership emergence by fostering assertiveness, a valued leadership characteristic in US organizations. Experiment 1 was a three-wave longitudinal field experiment at a Fortune 100 US company. 471 individuals were randomly assigned to either receive a 9-week debate training or not. 18 months later, the treatment-group participants were more likely to have advanced in leadership level than the control-group participants, an effect mediated by increased assertiveness. In a sample twice as large (N = 975), Experiment 2 found that individuals who were randomly assigned to receive debate training (vs. non-debate training or no training) acted more assertively and had higher leadership emergence in a subsequent group activity. Results were consistent across self-rated, group-member-rated, and coder-rated assertiveness. Moderation analyses suggest that the effects of debate training were not significantly different for (a) US-born and foreign-born individuals, (b) men and women, or (c) different ethnic groups. Overall, our experiments suggest that debate training can help individuals attain leadership roles by developing their assertiveness.
... Finally, our research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of Chinese and East Asian cultures (Liu et al., 2019;Lu, 2022;Talhelm et al., 2014). For example, recent research by Liu et al. (2019) revealed that people in China are more vigilant toward coworkers compared to those in the United States, in contrast to a widespread belief that people in East Asian cultures always exhibit greater ingroup favoritism compared to those in Western cultures. ...
Building on the perspectives reflected in the Western intellectual tradition of the psychology of identity and the self, current research in cultural psychology tends to conceptualize uniqueness preferences as reflecting an identity-based motive and argues that people in Western cultures value uniqueness because it is viewed as inherently important to their identity and individuality. In this research, we introduce a complementary Eastern perspective to understand uniqueness preferences and argue that uniqueness preferences can also reflect a strategic motive where people in East Asian cultures may also value uniqueness because of the instrumental material and social benefits they believe uniqueness may confer. We tested our propositions in nine preregistered studies contrasting the decision making of people in the United States with those in China. We found that compared to participants from the United States, those from China were more likely to pursue uniqueness or believe others would pursue uniqueness in situations where being unique could potentially confer material and social benefits (Studies 1a–1c, 2, 4, 5), and this behavioral tendency could be explained in part by participants from China exhibiting a greater strategic motive for uniqueness seeking (Studies 3–5). Further, correlational and experimental studies provided some evidence for the roles of the need for power, power distance orientation, trait competitiveness, and upward social comparison as psychological antecedents to the strategic motive for uniqueness seeking (Studies 5–7). Overall, this research provides an alternative Eastern cultural perspective to balance the prevailing Western cultural perspective for understanding uniqueness preferences.
... Finally, we contribute to the growing body of research on work experiences of Asian American employees. While some studies have examined how Asian Americans' own attributes and behaviors, such as low assertiveness, ethnic homophily, and relational concerns, disadvantage them at work (Lu, 2022(Lu, , 2024Lu et al., 2020), others have examined how explicitly negative perceptions of Asian Americans (e.g., uncreative, having virus) lead to adverse outcomes (Jun & Wu, 2021;Lu, 2024). Our research complements these two foci by exploring the role of third-party coworkers in causing passive harm to Asian Americans. ...
Despite Americans’ recent heightened awareness of racial inequality, anti-Asian racism at work remains underrecognized and largely unaddressed. In this research, we aim to understand why White bystander coworkers may fail to confront anti-Asian racism. Integrating the moral exclusion perspective and research on racial positions, we propose that due to perceiving Asian Americans as more foreign than other non-White coworkers, White coworkers are less likely to feel anger and engage in confrontation when witnessing anti-Asian racism at work. We first conducted a survey study (Study 1), demonstrating the external validity of the phenomenon that White coworkers are less likely to confront racism when the victim is Asian American versus Black. We then conducted two experiments (Studies 2 and 3) with a realistic, interactive design and behavioral measures of confrontation, supporting our hypothesized mechanisms (i.e., perceived target foreignness and anger). Study 3 further generalized our theory by including Hispanic/Latinx American targets as an additional comparison group and showing that the relative perceived foreignness among Asian American, Hispanic/Latinx American, and Black targets reduced White coworkers’ anger and confrontation. We then conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our work.
... Table 1 summarizes recent studies contrasting EAs and SAs, two large Asian subgroups in the United States. In particular, net of other factors (e.g., socioeconomic status, English fluency), ethnic EAs-but not ethnic SAsexperience a bamboo ceiling in key domains, including leadership attainment (Lu, 2022(Lu, , 2024Zhu, 2023), academic performance in law and business schools , and starting salaries . ...
... Bamboo ceiling in leadership. Across various contexts, Lu and colleagues have consistently found a disproportionate underrepresentation of EAs-but not SAs-in leadership positions in the United States (Lu, 2022(Lu, , 2024. For example, in S&P 500 companies, whereas EAs have a lower CEO-to-population ratio than Whites, SAs actually have a higher CEO-topopulation ratio than Whites . ...
... One key difference between EAs and SAs concerns verbal assertiveness, a prized characteristic in the United States . A consistent finding is that EAs are less assertive than SAs and Whites in interpersonal communication (Chavez, 2021;Lu, 2022Lu, , 2024. This cultural difference in assertiveness has various behavioral manifestations and mediates EAs' bamboo ceiling across different domains: EAs are disadvantaged in leadership partly because they tend not to speak up and voice opinions , disadvantaged in academic performance in U.S. law schools and business schools partly because they tend to have low class participation , and disadvantaged in starting salaries partly because they tend not to negotiate . ...
This article spotlights a widespread problem in research and practice: Asians are commonly categorized as a monolithic group in the US. Regarding research, my 24-year archival analysis of Psychological Science shows that most US studies did not specify which Asian subgroup(s) were examined. Regarding practice, my analysis of the DEI webpages and latest diversity reports of S&P 100 companies finds that none of them differentiated between Asian subgroups. Such use of the generic category “Asian” is problematic because it masks important differences among Asian subgroups: (a) of all ethnic groups in the US, socioeconomic inequality among Asian subgroups is the highest and fastest growing; (b) US studies show that East Asians (e.g., ethnic Chinese)—but not South Asians (e.g., ethnic Indians)—experience a “Bamboo Ceiling” in consequential contexts, including leadership attainment, academic performance in law and business schools, and starting salaries. Thus, lumping Asians together can obscure the challenges faced by certain Asian subgroups and jeopardize the attention and resources they need. More broadly, this article demonstrates the importance of differentiating between ethnic subgroups in research (e.g., theorization, surveys, and data analysis) and practice (e.g., diversity reports) to foster diversity, equity, and inclusion.
... While emerging data suggest that friendship racial homophily tends to increase during early adolescence (e.g., Kogachi & Graham, 2021), there remains a dearth of knowledge regarding how these developmental trajectories continue to evolve into late adolescence and emerging adulthood. Furthermore, existing longitudinal research on friendship homophily often lumps various Asian ethnic groups together (e.g., Kogachi & Graham, 2021), if they were included in the sample at all, thereby overlooking the nuanced yet crucial distinctions in friendship development of different Asian subgroups (Lu, 2021). Additionally, there is limited understanding of the psychosocial factors that accompany changes in friendship racial composition (Titzmann, 2014). ...
... The rationale for investigating racial homophily trajectories within Asian American populations is multifaceted. First, it is crucial to note the significant heterogeneity in the engagement of Asian American youth with both friendship homophily and heterophily (Kao & Joyner, 2004;Lu, 2021). Within various Asian ethnic groups, a clear distinction emerges, with youth of East Asian descent exhibiting a notably higher degree of racial homophily (Kao & Joyner, 2004), especially when compared to their South Asian counterparts (Lu, 2021). ...
... First, it is crucial to note the significant heterogeneity in the engagement of Asian American youth with both friendship homophily and heterophily (Kao & Joyner, 2004;Lu, 2021). Within various Asian ethnic groups, a clear distinction emerges, with youth of East Asian descent exhibiting a notably higher degree of racial homophily (Kao & Joyner, 2004), especially when compared to their South Asian counterparts (Lu, 2021). This emphasizes the necessity of disaggregating data at the ethnic level when examining friendship dynamics among Asian American populations. ...
Friendship racial homophily, the tendency to form friendships with individuals who share the same racial background, is a normative developmental phenomenon that holds particular significance for youth of color in a racialized society. Yet, there exists a paucity of longitudinal research elucidating the stability and change of friendship racial composition across developmental span. This study aimed to examine the friendship racial homophily trajectories over a six-year period encompassing four time points. The sample comprised 437 Asian American youth (MAge = 16.52, SDAge = 1.36, 53% female), with 197 Filipino and 240 Korean participants. Using logistic multilevel modeling analyses, it was found that both Filipino and Korean American youth demonstrated an increase in friendship racial homophily from high school to college, but that Filipino youth overall reported lower levels of racial homophily compared to their Korean counterparts. The study findings also pinpointed several influential factors impacting these trajectories, including proficiency in heritage languages, ethnic identity, and encounters with racial discrimination from both White Americans and other People of Color. These results highlight the continuous evolution of friendship racial composition from high school to college and emphasize the crucial role of ethnic identity and experiences of discrimination in influencing these dynamics, with ethnic identity exerting more enduring effects and experiences of discrimination showing more situational impacts on the levels of racial homophily.
... Prior research has explored the impact of ethnicity on individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and well-being, with a particular focus on migration countries like Australia, where Asian migration has seen substantial growth in recent decades (Ho, 2020). Despite being labeled as the "model minority" due to their strong educational and work ethic (Jun et al., 2023;Lu, 2022), Asian-Australians, including second and third-generation individuals, still face the "bamboo ceiling", encountering various barriers to career advancement (Biddle et al., 2019). For instance, while comprising 9.3% of the labor force, only 4.9% reach senior executive positions, and a mere 1.9% hold executive roles in significant organizations (Diversity Council Australia, 2014). ...
... Instead of a general emphasis on the integration of perceived overqualification research and diversity and cross-cultural management, we further expect to focus on more specific reality by considering Asian-Australians, their actual and perceived overqualification status, and existing issues need to be addressed. To explain, we highlight that Asian-Australian employee are likely to face "Bamboo ceiling" -a term to describe the barriers that prevent Asian-Australians from reaching senior leadership positions in their careers (e.g., Biddle et al., 2019)-such metaphor is originated from the fact that bamboo has important cultural and economic meanings across Asia (Lu et al., 2022). When we consider the experiences of Asian-Australian employees within this context, it becomes evident that the constant struggle against the Bamboo Ceiling can contribute significantly to the perception of overqualification. ...
... Nevertheless, those studies only focused on employees who feel overqualified in general. Considering the fact that Asians are still understudied minority groups (Lu, 2022(Lu, , 2023, it is, therefore, of utmost importance to take into account organizational and job-related factors which can debunk and address the model minority myth and remove racial gaps in leadership positions. Indeed, this notion is particularly relevant to leadership categorization theory (Lord et al., 2020) which explains the existence of racial gaps in leadership role in process of interpersonal interactions -individuals possessing "stereotypically White attributes" are likely to acquire a leadership position as in Western societies leaders are usually perceived to be White (Petsko & Rosette, 2023, p. 337). ...
Employee overqualification has become a prevalent issue worldwide and academic research on its effects has been proliferated. Considering the growing attention on employee overqualification and recognizing the surge of fruitful outcomes of perceived overqualification research in literature, we highlight the focus on ethnic minorities to understand perceived overqualification and propose a research agenda. First, we suggest that it remains unstudied and can be meaningful to link perceived overqualification with ethnic differences and management. Second, considering bamboo ceiling phenomenon and using Asian-Australians as an illustration, we clarify how perceived overqualification has been manifested and influence minority groups within cross-cultural context and discuss why it is critical to address this issue. Third, we conclude by presenting directions and possible research agendas that will advance the understanding of employee perceived overqualification under cross-cultural context. Our paper drives perceived overqualification literature forward and is expected to inform organizational scholars and practitioners in terms of how to manage employee perceived overqualification in multicultural and multiethnic contexts.
... This result was also demonstrated in Lu et al. 9 There are other cultural aspects that contribute to the difference in leadership attainment for the ethnic groups. For example, Lu 44,45 conducted studies to show that EAs are stereotyped as lacking creativity and socializing more with other EAs (i.e., ethnic homophily), both of them are at odds with prized leadership attributes of creativity and ethnic heterophily. ...
A recent study investigated the impact of culture of Asian groups on leadership attainment in the U.S. It revealed that East Asians (EAs) are less likely than South Asians (SAs) and white people (WP) to attain leadership positions, and SAs may even surpass WP in leadership attainment. The study explained that the underrepresentation of EAs in leadership positions in the U.S. (the so called bamboo ceiling) is partly because EAs communicate less assertively. Specifically, EA cultures value collectivism (e.g., humility and harmony), which are at odds with western cultures that value individualism (e.g., extraversion and assertiveness), whereas SA cultures are congruent with western cultures. However, the study did not distinguish the different impact of home culture (i.e., EA cultures) and host culture (i.e., western cultures) on US-born EAs versus foreign-born EAs. We argue that for US-born EAs (i.e., second generation EAs), host culture plays a more important role than home culture in their growth and they may not be underrepresented in leadership attainment compared to WP. The bamboo ceiling effect is mostly demonstrated among foreign-born EAs (i.e., first generation EAs) who are shaped mainly under the home culture. We support the argument by conducting analysis on one of the datasets in the original study and a new dataset from Fortune’s 40-under-40 list. Our study suggests that when studying the underrepresentation of leadership attainment for EAs, US-born EAs and foreign-born EAs should not be aggregated in one category. Considering the ethnic EA group, the bamboo ceiling phenomenon may exist mainly among foreign-born EAs because US-born EAs, with a median age of 21.3, are much younger than the general American population, who may not be experienced enough to be considered for leadership positions in established large companies.
... Career attainment is influenced by external barriers as well as individual-level factors. Most of the research on the bamboo ceiling tend to focus on external structural barriers contributing to Asian underrepresentation, such as the ethnic homogeneity of social networks (Lu, 2022), perceived discrimination (Yu, 2020), or aversive racism (Williams, 2008). Research on individual-level factors have primarily focused on underdeveloped leadership skills , with a select few examining why some Asians do break through the bamboo ceiling (cf. ...
... Research on individual-level factors have primarily focused on underdeveloped leadership skills , with a select few examining why some Asians do break through the bamboo ceiling (cf. Kawahara et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2020Lu et al., , 2022Lu, 2022). As the population of cultural minorities grow, continued research on the internal individual factors can contribute to our understanding of how culture elements influence perspectives and behaviors and empower individuals to navigate challenges, career advancement, and promote resilience in existing organizational structures. ...
... Lu et al. (2020) and Yu (2020) both noted that South Asian Americans seem to not encounter as many barriers in their career outcome attainment. Lu's series of studies further discovered that differences in assertiveness (Lu et al., 2020), ethnic homophily of social networks (Lu, 2022), and negotiation behaviors (Lu, 2023), between East and South Asian Americans contributed to different career outcomes. ...
Introduction
Past research on the “bamboo ceiling” tend to focus on the barriers it presents, with few studies examining individuals who break through the bamboo ceiling. The purpose of this study is to explain the psychological factors driving the individual differences between East Asian Americans who break through the bamboo ceiling and those who do not.
Methodology
This two-study sequential mixed-methods exploratory research study included 19 one-on-one semi-structured interviews and 338 survey respondents by East Asian Americans.
Results
In Study 1, based on 19 one-on-one semi cultural essentialism and bicultural identity integration emerged from the interview data as contributing factors. Interviewees who exhibited essentialist or social constructionist beliefs showed different behavioral and career patterns. This mediating relationship was supported in Study 2. Taken together, it was found that East Asian Americans who had less essentialist views of culture were more likely to have a fluid and integrated bicultural identity and more likely to break the bamboo ceiling in their careers.
Discussion
The findings from both qualitative and quantitative data suggest that having more fluid concepts of culture, associating with more integrated bicultural identities, may improve career prospects in a multicultural work environment. This article offers practical implications for Asian Americans who desire to achieve their career goals to be authentic self while remaining adaptable and developing a mindset of “flexibility.”
... A body of research indicates that Asian Americans face disparities when it comes to hiring and promotion (Lai & Babcock, 2013;Lee et al., 2015;Sy et al., 2010;Yu, 2020). For example, even though 20.6% of employees at JP Morgan Chase were Asian in 2017, only 6.8% of leadership was Asian American (Bloomberg, 2017;Lu, 2022). Additionally, only 15% of leaders in the technology sector are Asian, despite them making up 30% of the technology workforce (Gee & Peck, 2018;Lu, 2022;The Economist, 2015). ...
... For example, even though 20.6% of employees at JP Morgan Chase were Asian in 2017, only 6.8% of leadership was Asian American (Bloomberg, 2017;Lu, 2022). Additionally, only 15% of leaders in the technology sector are Asian, despite them making up 30% of the technology workforce (Gee & Peck, 2018;Lu, 2022;The Economist, 2015). Asian women, in particular, appear to be at a disadvantage, with East and Southeast Asian women with PhDs being less likely to be promoted to managerial positions when compared to similarly educated White men and White women (Yamane, 2011). ...
Asian American women, who make up a growing proportion of the workforce, face unique intersectional forms of workplace discrimination and bias based on being both a racial and gender minority. In this review, we take an intersectional approach, applying social psychological research on gendered race theory and Wong and McCullough’s Intersectional Prototypicality Model, to document as well as explain how race and gender concomitantly inform the challenges and barriers Asian American women face in the workplace. Specifically, we review evidence that the category “Asian” is frequently associated with femininity, and that this in turn leads Asian American women to be viewed as hyper-prototypical or hypo-prototypical given the context of their work. We describe how this alignment or misalignment explains Asian American women’s workplace experiences across multiple domains including hiring, promotion, negotiation, and workplace harassment. By explicitly considering the intersection of race and gender, we conclude by articulating novel solutions and implications for creating better workplace environments for Asian American women.
... The first is the tendency on the part of East Asians to discourage assertiveness. The second is what they refer to as "ethnic homophily," by which they mean the tendency of East Asians to socialize primarily with other East Asians (South Asians, they argue, are more likely to socialize with people from different ethnic backgrounds); see Lu, Nisbett, & Morris, (2020) and Lu (2022). ...
