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3 Structures of similar cannabinoids in Radula marginata (Perrottetinene) and Cannabis sativa (Tetrahydrocannabinol)
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Plant-associated endophytes live in mutualistic association with their hosts wherein a plethora of physiological, chemical, and molecular interactions are responsible maintaining their association. In this chapter, we explore the multifaceted potential of endophytes harbored in Cannabis sativa L. plants in interacting not only with the host plants,...
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In bacteria, the DsbA oxidoreductase is a crucial factor responsible for the introduction of disulfide bonds to extracytoplasmic proteins, which include important virulence factors. A lack of proper disulfide bonds frequently leads to instability and/or loss of protein function; therefore, improper disulfide bonding may lead to avirulent phenotypes...
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... A number of these endophytes are reported to confer biostimulant effects on cannabis plants through various mechanisms, including phytohormone or secondary metabolite production [28,67], thus enhancing vigor, yield, and cannabinoid levels [28,60]. They may also enhance defense responses via the activation of defense pathways and the production or solubilization of compounds that enhance plant fitness [23,39,60,65,66,68,69]. Also, competition, antibiotic production, and mycoparasitism may be involved [16,22,39,[70][71][72]. ...
The roles of endophytes in Cannabis sativa (cannabis, hemp) remain poorly explored. While in vitro studies suggest that there can be several benefits, such as plant growth promotion and protection against pathogens, more in planta studies are needed. This review summarizes the bacterial and fungal endophytes previously reported in tissues of C. sativa and discusses the factors influencing their presence, as well as their potential beneficial and detrimental effects. Using genome sequencing and culture-based approaches, we describe the microbial diversity in hydroponically cultivated cannabis plants at several developmental stages. These include mother plants, cuttings, vegetative and flowering plants, and tissue-cultured plantlets. Microbes that were present include fungal, yeast, and bacterial endophytes found in roots, stems, leaves, inflorescences, and seeds. These may have originated from the growing substrate or be transmitted through vegetative propagation. Notable endophytes included Rhizophagus irregularis (a mycorrhizal fungus), Penicillium chrysogenum (an antibiotic producer), and various endophytic yeast species not previously described in C. sativa. Endophytes representing potential plant pathogens, such as Fusarium oxysporum, are also present within cannabis tissues, which can negatively impact plant health. Using scanning electron microscopy, we observed that fungal propagules are present within pith parenchyma cells and xylem vessel elements in stem tissues, illustrating for the first time the in situ localization and distribution of endophytes in cannabis vascular tissues. The mechanism of spread through xylem vessels likely contributes to the spread of endophytes within cannabis and hemp plants. Further research is required to validate the roles of endophytes in cannabis and hemp plants grown under commercial production conditions.
... and symbiotic nitrogenous rhizobia, Acinetobacter, Streptomyces, Streptoverticillium, Enterobacter, Calotrhix, Arthrobacter, Stenotrophomonas, and Ochrobactrum (Kalayu, 2019;Wan et al., 2020). The endophytic microbes associated with cannabis produced siderophores, cellulases enzymes, and phosphorus solubilization in in-vitro assays indicating their potential as hemp-growing promoters (Kusari et al., 2017;Scott et al., 2018). However, more studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of these microbial secondary metabolites in in-vivo assays to prove their efficacy in the plant-microbe interaction. ...
... and symbiotic nitrogenous rhizobia, Acinetobacter, Streptomyces, Streptoverticillium, Enterobacter, Calotrhix, Arthrobacter, Stenotrophomonas, and Ochrobactrum (Kalayu, 2019;Wan et al., 2020). The endophytic microbes associated with cannabis produced siderophores, cellulases enzymes, and phosphorus solubilization in in-vitro assays indicating their potential as hemp-growing promoters (Kusari et al., 2017;Scott et al., 2018). However, more studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of these microbial secondary metabolites in in-vivo assays to prove their efficacy in the plant-microbe interaction. ...
... The authors showed that levels under 15 ppm and over 240 ppm of K (as K 2 SO 4 ) negatively affected the optimal growth and functions, such as shoot and root development, nutrient uptake, transport of nutrients, transpiration, and gas exchange. Also, endophytes, which affect K availability in the soil to plant (Teotia et al., 2016), were found to improve Cannabis pest resistance, increase yield and secondary metabolites (Ahmed and Hijri, 2021;Kusari et al., 2017;Lyu et al., 2019;Taghinasab and Jabaji, 2020). ...
Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a crop with the potential for multiple products. However, there is a lack of information regarding the effects of some key nutrients and soil microbiology. Potassium (K) and microbes can affect plant physiology, growth, and secondary metabolite production. A glasshouse experiment in a fully controlled growth room was undertaken to assess K requirements and effects on physiology on a tropical/subtropical variety of industrial hemp, ECO-GH15, bred for Australian conditions by Ecofibre (Brisbane, QLD, Australia). Increasing rates of K of conventional fertiliser liquid applications were applied to hemp plants and compared to a slow-release form containing soil microbes (SRK) under short daylength (12.5 h), simulating a tropical environment. Application of 11, 43 and 129 ppm of conventional fast-release potassium K as potassium sulphate (K2SO4), or a slow (controlled) release form (131 ppm of K), were applied to plants and their growth parameters compared. A series of physiological and growth response data was collected, including photosynthesis response to increasing active radiation (PAR or PPFD) and carbon dioxide (CO2), and cannabinoid production. Plant growth responses, such as stalk diameter, height, and shoot dry weight, increased with SRK application, while no differences were observed between the three increasing conventional K rates. The lower conventional K rate (11 ppm) resulted in increased photosynthetic activity up to 600–700 PPFD. Physiological data showed that the increasing K rate produced less efficient plants in terms of PPFD and CO2 utilisation. Cannabinoid analysis showed an increase in cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabidivarin (CBDV) at the higher K rate, while the SRK increased the production of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and similar cannabinoids. This study revealed that sustained nutrient application improved plant photosynthesis and gas exchange regulation resulting in increased plant growth and cannabinoid production under tropical conditions, and helped to better understand the role of K in plant stress and physiological efficiency.
... Apresenta forte raiz primária com caule ereto do tipo haste ramifi cado e não lenhoso (herbáceo), a qual pode variar de 1 a 6 metros de altura cultivada principalmente em regiões temperadas e tropicais (11,12). Junto a Humulus lupulus, a C. sativa é pertencente à pequena família Cannabaceae, conhecida pela biossíntese de compostos canabinoides (especifi camente denominados fitocanabinoides) que são metabólitos secundários com notórios efeitos terapêuticos registrados (13). ...
... Centenas fi tocanabinoides já foram descobertos e isolados (5). Esses compostos possuem efeitos benéfi cos para a saúde como estimulante de apetite, analgesia, no tratamento de glaucoma e como antiemético (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16). Porém a grande maioria não é encontrada em abundância na planta ou não apresenta efeitos relevantes co- nhecidos, tornando assim somente uma pequena porcentagem deles viável e útil para a utilização na medicina (Quadro 1). ...
O uso da Cannabis sativa para fi ns medicinais é um assunto bastante polêmico no Brasil, por isso é necessário se aprofundar no tema para elucidar as principais dúvidas e possíveis benefícios. A epilepsia é uma doença que causa alterações neurológicas, como crises epilépticas, disfagia e convulsões. Pode levar a danos cognitivos, psicológicos e comorbidades, piorando a qualidade de vida do paciente. Neste estudo foi realizada uma revisão integrativa sobre os diferentes tipos de canabinóides de C. sativa e seu uso no tratamento da epilepsia. Os dados foram obtidos a partir de artigos de pesquisa publicados em periódicos entre 1963 e 2020. Atenção especial foi dada a diferentes metabólitos, como o canabidiol (CBD). Aspectos gerais da epilepsia, uso de fi tocanabinóides em casos refratários e ensaios clínicos e pré-clínicos foram abordados nesta revisão, enfatizando seus efeitos biológicos. Como alvo futuro para o tratamento da epilepsia, o uso terapêutico do CBD em neurologia mostra resultados promissores nos casos em que a medicação convencional não tem efeito. Uma contribuição da pesquisa sobre outros fi tocanabinóides e sua inter-relação é essencial para avançar no tratamento da epilepsia e outras patologias.
... Several recent literature reviews can be consulted about the current opportunities and challenges associated with cannabis genetic diversity, cultivar breeding and agronomic traits improvement (Salentijn et al., 2015;Clarke and Merlin, 2016;Schluttenhofer and Yuan, 2017;Hesami et al., 2020), cannabinoid elicitation (Gorelick and Bernstein, 2017;Backer et al., 2019), disease management (Punja, 2021), production factors optimization Eichhorn Bilodeau et al., 2019), and biosafety practices to reduce contaminants (McPartland and McKernan, 2017;Montoya et al., 2020;Vujanovic et al., 2020). Within all these promising developments, microbiome engineering and beneficial microbial inoculants appear as a recurring prospective trend, potentially promoting plant growth and fitness (Kusari et al., 2017;Backer et al., 2019;Lyu et al., 2019;Söderström, 2020), enhancing cannabinoid production Taghinasab and Jabaji, 2020;, controlling diseases (Kusari et al., 2017;Lyu et al., 2019;Söderström, 2020;Punja, 2021), and improving product biosafety (Vujanovic et al., 2020). ...
... Several recent literature reviews can be consulted about the current opportunities and challenges associated with cannabis genetic diversity, cultivar breeding and agronomic traits improvement (Salentijn et al., 2015;Clarke and Merlin, 2016;Schluttenhofer and Yuan, 2017;Hesami et al., 2020), cannabinoid elicitation (Gorelick and Bernstein, 2017;Backer et al., 2019), disease management (Punja, 2021), production factors optimization Eichhorn Bilodeau et al., 2019), and biosafety practices to reduce contaminants (McPartland and McKernan, 2017;Montoya et al., 2020;Vujanovic et al., 2020). Within all these promising developments, microbiome engineering and beneficial microbial inoculants appear as a recurring prospective trend, potentially promoting plant growth and fitness (Kusari et al., 2017;Backer et al., 2019;Lyu et al., 2019;Söderström, 2020), enhancing cannabinoid production Taghinasab and Jabaji, 2020;, controlling diseases (Kusari et al., 2017;Lyu et al., 2019;Söderström, 2020;Punja, 2021), and improving product biosafety (Vujanovic et al., 2020). ...
... For examples, phosphate solubilization abilities can be assessed by growing bacteria on Pikovskaya's (PVK) agar, nitrogen fixation by using N-free medium, siderophore production with chrome azurol S (CAS) agar, IAA and other phytohormones production with Salkowski reagent and colorimetric methods, ACC deaminase activity with Dworkin and Foster's (DF) salts medium (Afzal et al., 2015;Ngalimat et al., 2021), biofilm formation with crystal violet staining (Selin et al., 2009), and metabolic capabilities with Biolog microarrays (Gómez-Lama Cabanás et al., 2018;Zboralski et al., 2020). For screening of biocontrol determinants, in vitro confrontational assays are commonly used to assess the growth inhibition of culturable pathogens (Afzal et al., 2015;Kusari et al., 2017;Balthazar et al., 2021), Mueller Hinton (MH) media are used for antibiotic diffusion assays, Cyantesmo paper for HCN production, UV-visible spectroscopy for phenazines and pyoverdine detection, and gas and/or liquid chromatography methods for quantification of volatile compounds (VOCs) and soluble antibiotics (Selin et al., 2009;Gómez-Lama Cabanás et al., 2018;Ngalimat et al., 2021). Additionally, lytic enzyme activities like proteases, pectinases and chitinases, can be detected on minimal media amended, respectively, with skim milk, pectin, and colloidal chitin (Afzal et al., 2015;Gómez-Lama Cabanás et al., 2018). ...
Among the oldest domesticated crops, cannabis plants ( Cannabis sativa L., marijuana and hemp) have been used to produce food, fiber, and drugs for thousands of years. With the ongoing legalization of cannabis in several jurisdictions worldwide, a new high-value market is emerging for the supply of marijuana and hemp products. This creates unprecedented challenges to achieve better yields and environmental sustainability, while lowering production costs. In this review, we discuss the opportunities and challenges pertaining to the use of beneficial Pseudomonas spp. bacteria as crop inoculants to improve productivity. The prevalence and diversity of naturally occurring Pseudomonas strains within the cannabis microbiome is overviewed, followed by their potential mechanisms involved in plant growth promotion and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Emphasis is placed on specific aspects relevant for hemp and marijuana crops in various production systems. Finally, factors likely to influence inoculant efficacy are provided, along with strategies to identify promising strains, overcome commercialization bottlenecks, and design adapted formulations. This work aims at supporting the development of the cannabis industry in a sustainable way, by exploiting the many beneficial attributes of Pseudomonas spp.
... Ample evidences reveal that endophytes have a high potential of triggering plant responses resulting in the production of secondary metabolites in the host (Fig. 11.3) (Pandey et al., 2016). These secondary metabolites are said to mimic the action of the plant's metabolites or generate the host plant compounds that activate signaling pathways targeting the transformation of secondary plant metabolites (Kusari et al., 2017). Plant microbiomes persuade the production of plant hormones and regulators such as abscisic acid, ethephon, cycocel, salicylic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), mevinolin, and gibberellins, which further enhance the productivity and functionality of Cannabis secondary metabolites (Mansouri and Salari, 2014;Jalali et al., 2019). ...
This volume, Endophyte Biology: Recent Findings from the Kashmir Himalayas, is a unique compilation of the original, latest, and updated information on endophyte biology of the Kashmir Himalayas. The book presents an introduction to and definition of endophytes, the endophytic diversity of some important plants of the Kashmir Himalayas, bioprospection of endophytes for various drug metabolites, sustainable agriculture, and more. This book discusses the applications of endophytes in the agriculture, aroma, and pharmaceutical industries.
... Endophytes are well known to produce biologically active secondary metabolites that mimic the effect of the host plant metabolites or produce precursors of host plant compounds to activate the signaling pathway aiming to modulate secondary plant metabolites [117]. They induce the production of phytohormones such as ABA, GA, and ET that may provide a significant potential for improving cannabis secondary metabolites. ...
Plants, including cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa), host distinct beneficial microbial communities on and inside their tissues and organs, including seeds. They contribute to plant growth, facilitating mineral nutrient uptake, inducing defence resistance against pathogens, and modulating the production of plant secondary metabolites. Understanding the microbial partnerships with cannabis has the potential to affect the agricultural practices by improving plant fitness and the yield of cannabinoids. Little is known about this beneficial cannabis-microbe partnership, and the complex relationship between the endogenous microbes associated with various tissues of the plant, and the role that cannabis may play in supporting or enhancing them. This review will consider cannabis microbiota studies and the effects of endophytes on the elicitation of secondary metabolite production in cannabis plants. The review aims to shed light on the importance of the cannabis microbiome and how cannabinoid compound concentrations can be stimulated through symbiotic and/or mutualistic relationships with endophytes.
... In planta, two isolates were able to increase canola (Brassica napus) root length under salt stress conditions Afzal et al. (2015), while other isolates did not increase growth variables of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) or hemp seedlings (Scott et al., 2018). Bioprospecting from wild cannabis may reveal PGPR that improve cannabis growth (Kusari et al., 2017). Alternatively, PGPR isolated from other crops may provide significant potential for improving cannabis yields. ...
Until recently, the commercial production of Cannabis sativa was restricted to varieties that yielded high-quality fiber while producing low levels of the psychoactive cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In the last few years, a number of jurisdictions have legalized the production of medical and/or recreational cannabis with higher levels of THC, and other jurisdictions seem poised to follow suit. Consequently, demand for industrial-scale production of high yield cannabis with consistent cannabinoid profiles is expected to increase. In this paper we highlight that currently, projected annual production of cannabis is based largely on facility size, not yield per square meter. This meta-analysis of cannabis yields reported in scientific literature aimed to identify the main factors contributing to cannabis yield per plant, per square meter, and per W of lighting electricity. In line with previous research we found that variety, plant density, light intensity and fertilization influence cannabis yield and cannabinoid content; we also identified pot size, light type and duration of the flowering period as predictors of yield and THC accumulation. We provide insight into the critical role of light intensity, quality, and photoperiod in determining cannabis yields, with particular focus on the potential for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to improve growth and reduce energy requirements. We propose that the vast amount of genomics data currently available for cannabis can be used to better understand the effect of genotype on yield. Finally, we describe diversification that is likely to emerge in cannabis growing systems and examine the potential role of plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for growth promotion, regulation of cannabinoid biosynthesis, and biocontrol.
Introduction_Cannabis sativa L. is an annual, dioecious, herbaceous, monotypic genus of blooming plants, synthetically rich in the natural constituents of complex compounds including terpenophenolic chemicals such as phytocannabinoids. Thus, cannabis is gaining a distinct fascination in the pharmaceutical research under its medicinal properties despite being prohibited in many countries. This study aims to provide overview of cannabis's phytochemical and pharmacological qualities as well as its cannabinoids synthesis. Methods_Between 2011 and April 2022, the literature was reviewed by searching Medline, Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Knowledge, PubMed, and SpringerLink databases. The accompanying vital terms were utilized: ‘Cannabis sativa L.’, ‘Chemical constituents’, ‘Biosynthesis’, ‘Pharmacological aspects’, ‘Phytocannabinoids’, and ‘Terpenes’. Results_More than 588 bioactive compounds have been extracted and characterized into various classes of cannabinoids and non-cannabinoids (i.e., terpenes, alkaloids, hydrocarbons etc.). Overall, 20 studies show to exhibit diversified implications of cannabis in arrays of diseases, especially cancer and neurological disorders, because of its analgesic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, sedative, spasmolytic, antimicrobial, and expectorant effects. Conclusion_This investigation suggests that the cannabinoids from Cannabis sativus can be employed to treat different serious ailments.
