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Structural equation model with attention control and flanker as separate factors predicting working memory capacity and fluid intelligence. Working memory capacity is comprised of operation span, symmetry span, and rotation span, with standardized loadings of .62, .79, and .80, respectively. The correlation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence is the correlation between their disturbance terms. Nonsignificant paths are shown with a dashed line. SACT sustained attention-to-cue; RT flanker reaction time flanker effect; Flanker DL adaptive flanker response deadline; Flanker PR adaptive flanker presentation rate. N 383.
Source publication
Cognitive tasks that produce reliable and robust effects at the group level often fail to yield reliable and valid individual differences. An ongoing debate among attention researchers is whether conflict resolution mechanisms are task-specific or domain-general, and the lack of correlation between most attention measures seems to favor the view th...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... factor analysis indicated that the flanker tasks could load onto their own factor separate from the other attention measures. We tested a structural equation model with the flanker tasks loaded onto a separate factor from the other attention measures, and both these factors predicting working memory capacity and fluid intelligence (see Figure 7). The model fit the data well and indeed the flanker tasks formed a coherent separable factor. ...
Context 2
... test-retest reliability, correlation to antisaccade, average factor loading onto an attention factor, and correlation to working memory capacity and fluid intelligence were roughly doubled for the adaptive response deadline flanker over the standard RT flanker. The latent analyses presented in Figure 7 shows that the traditional and modified flanker tasks still loaded together, which is one piece of evidence that the manner in which we modified the flanker task improved its psychometrics without drastically changing the nature of the task. This is noteworthy because a primary concern with the manner in which we modified the Stroop and flanker tasks was that interference effects were not directly reflected in the score. ...
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Citations
... A large number of studies have attempted to elucidate the nature and implementation of cognitive control, that is, the ability to identify conflicting tasks and adapt to them. The vast majority of studies have focused on single-item interference tasks, such as the Stroop task, the Eriksen flanker task, and the Simon task (Draheim et al., 2021), in which each item appears individually on the screen with a temporal gap between trials (i.e., interstimulus intervals; MacLeod, 2005). A possible drawback of these tasks is that they may not pose a sufficient challenge to cognitive control mechanisms, thereby limiting the range of cognitive control performance that can be studied. ...
Studies of cognitive control using tasks with isolated (single-item) versus multiple (multi-item) item presentation have shown that multi-item tasks may be more effective in capturing limitations of the cognitive control system arising from capacity constraints. Importantly, during multi-item tasks, performance decreases but does not collapse, consistent with effective management of cognitive overload. This has been interpreted by positing a strategic shift from a more parallel to a more serial processing, whereby the processing of the current item is prioritized over upcoming items, termed lockout scheduling. Here, we investigate this proposal by examining within-task modulations of eye–voice span measures and articulation duration in multi-item color naming tasks with and without internal interference (i.e., incongruent and neutral Stroop conditions). We hypothesized that lockout scheduling would manifest itself across measures and conditions as the task progresses and cognitive overload emerges. The results showed dynamic changes in both eye-voice span and articulation measures as a function of time-on-task, consistent with the gradual implementation of a lockout-scheduling strategy in response to emerging cognitive overload. The observed patterns indicate that the shift from a more parallel to a more serial processing is not an all-or-none phenomenon but a dynamic interplay between gaze, voice, and covert (i.e., parafoveal) attention, affecting online decisions about spatial distance, timing, and processing resource allocation.
... These experiments, because they rely on contrasts between conditions, may have higher construct validity than more traditional survey measures. Unfortunately, they are associated with low reliability, and this low reliability comes about because individual differences in contrasts may be less stable than hoped (Draheim, Tsukahara, Martin, Mashburn, & Engle, 2021). ...
Psychological experiments are routinely used to study covariation of individual differences in psychological processes. A key advantage of experimental tasks is that they may offer higher construct validity than traditional survey instruments. Whereas we welcome the generally growing attention to the psychometric evaluation of experimental tasks, we are concerned about an overemphasis on reliability as the principal criterion for evaluating task goodness or interpreting correlations across tasks. In this article, we present a conceptual framework that disentangles three levels of measures: foundational measures of task goodness (i.e., signal-to-noise ratios or intraclass correlations), reliability (which reflects both task goodness and the number of trials), and uncertainty in estimated correlations (which additionally depends on sample size). Within this framework, reliability takes an intermediate position – it is useful for planning but less so for communicating task goodness or interpreting correlations. Therefore, we advocate for a shift in focus: Researchers should use foundational task goodness measures to communicate the strengths and limitations of experimental designs, and report uncertainty in correlations. To that end, we highlight the role of hierarchical models to jointly estimate trial-level noise and individual variability, thus enabling more accurate and transparent inference about covariation of individual differences.
... Numerous studies have shown that reaction time is highly sensitive to speedaccuracy trade-offs (Draheim et al., 2019). Although researchers attempt to balance participants' speed-accuracy trade-offs through instructions, participants still tend to adopt different response strategies based on their personal priorities (Draheim et al., 2021;Heitz, 2014). Additionally, individuals may adjust their speed-accuracy trade-offs to meet the demands of specific tasks (Draheim et al., 2016). ...
Inhibition and updating are fundamental cognitive functions in humans, yet the nature of their relationship—whether shared or distinct—remains ambiguous. This study investigates the relationship between inhibition and updating within a unified task framework using a novel paradigm that integrates the N-back task with the congruent/incongruent Stroop task, creating conditions that require either updating alone or both inhibition and updating. Employing Signal Detection Theory (SDT) and the hierarchical drift diffusion model (HDDM), the results provided overall extremely strong Bayesian evidence that participants exhibited longer response times and lower accuracy in conditions requiring both inhibition and updating, compared to those requiring only updating. SDT analysis revealed a decline in discriminability, while HDDM analysis showed slower drift rates, longer non-decision times and a lower decision threshold in inhibition-demanding conditions. Even after controlling for the congruency sequence effect and current stimulus attributes, the results remained robust, showing a larger inhibition effect size compared to the traditional Stroop task. These findings suggest that inhibition consumes cognitive resources, impairing updating performance, and implying that both functions may rely on shared cognitive resources. Overall, the results elucidate the relationship between these fundamental executive functions, supporting the notion that inhibition and updating share cognitive resources.
... The six executive function tasks were computerized adaptations of established paradigms. We used accuracy scores (i.e., percentages of correct responses), rather than response time measures, to benefit from enhanced reliability (Draheim et al., 2021). Working memory was assessed by a Visual-Verbal Complex Span Task (VCST; Kane et al., 2004) and a Spatial n-Back Task (SNT; Schmiedek et al., 2010); inhibition by an Antisaccade Task (AST; Kane et al., 2001) and the Sustained Attention-to-Cue Task (SACT; Draheim et al., 2021); and shifting by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Grant & Berg, 1948) and the Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST; Dick, 2014). ...
... We used accuracy scores (i.e., percentages of correct responses), rather than response time measures, to benefit from enhanced reliability (Draheim et al., 2021). Working memory was assessed by a Visual-Verbal Complex Span Task (VCST; Kane et al., 2004) and a Spatial n-Back Task (SNT; Schmiedek et al., 2010); inhibition by an Antisaccade Task (AST; Kane et al., 2001) and the Sustained Attention-to-Cue Task (SACT; Draheim et al., 2021); and shifting by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST; Grant & Berg, 1948) and the Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST; Dick, 2014). ...
Emotional granularity is the ability to experience one’s emotional experiences in a nuanced and specific manner. According to the theory of constructed emotion, between-person differences in emotional granularity are a function of how efficiently individuals categorize affect-related input by means of emotion concepts. We propose that executive functions support the effective coordination of the emotion categorization process, thereby facilitating emotional granularity. In the present study, we empirically examined the associations between three domains of executive functions (i.e., working memory, inhibition, and shifting) and emotional granularity for both negative and positive emotions (negative and positive emotional granularity) in two samples (participants with and without chronic pain). We hypothesized that all three executive function domains would be positively associated with both negative and positive emotional granularity. Participants ( N = 153 individuals without chronic pain, N = 218 individuals with chronic pain) completed an online assessment of executive functions and a 14-day ambulatory assessment of 15 negative and 12 positive emotions (with five prompts per day). Contrary to our expectations, neither the six manifest executive function task scores nor a latent common executive function factor measured by the task scores were significantly positively associated with the negative and positive emotional granularity indices in either sample and in analyses that combined both samples. Our findings suggest that executive functions may play a lesser role for emotional granularity than previously assumed. We discuss alternative operationalizations of executive functions and emotional granularity that might reveal stronger associations between these constructs.
... Although there are strong theoretical reasons to expect a significant relationship between cognitive control and GCA, empirical findings have been inconsistent. Some studies suggest that higher intelligence correlates with greater cognitive control (e.g., Draheim et al., 2021;Engle et al., 1999), while others find no such relationship (e.g., Frischkorn et al., 2019;Rey-Mermet et al., 2019). This discrepancy has sparked a debate, underscoring three primary issues in measuring cognitive control using experimental tasks. ...
... In response, researchers are exploring alternatives to these conventional yet problematic measures. Efforts include adapting existing or developing new tasks (Draheim et al., 2021;Kucina et al., 2023;Moretti et al., 2023), employing mathematical models to capture process parameters more directly related to cognitive control (Hedge et al., 2022;Robinson & Steyvers, 2023;Schubert et al., 2022), and prioritizing neurocognitive over behavioral measures Schubert et al., 2021Schubert et al., , 2022. The goal of the present study was to further explore the use of neurocognitive measures of cognitive control in individual differences research, building on previous findings showing that midfrontal global theta connectivity is strongly related to individual differences in cognitive abilities (Schubert et al., 2021). ...
Understanding the neurocognitive basis of cognitive control and its relationship with general cognitive ability is a key challenge in individual differences research. This study investigates midfrontal theta connectivity as a neurocognitive marker for individual differences in cognitive control. Using electroencephalography, we examined midfrontal global theta connectivity across three distinct cognitive control tasks in 148 participants. Our findings reveal that midfrontal theta connectivity can be modeled as a trait-like latent variable, indicating its consistency across tasks and stability over time. However, the reliability of the observed measures was found to be low to moderate, suggesting substantial measurement error. We also replicated previous results, finding a strong correlation (r = 0.64) between midfrontal theta connectivity and cognitive abilities, especially during higher order stages of information processing. We disentangled the specific cognitive processes contributing to this relationship by employing a task-cueing paradigm with distinct cue and target intervals. The results indicated that only theta connectivity during response-related processes, not during cue-evoked task-set reconfiguration, correlated with cognitive abilities. These insights significantly advance theoretical models of intelligence, highlighting the critical role of specific aspects of cognitive control in cognitive abilities.
... It also provides a psychometrically superior evaluation of attentional control. 104 Participants first fixate on a crosshair. Next, a tone signals the beginning of the trial. ...
Introduction
Excessive sedentary time (ST) is linked to dementia risk, poorer attentional control and episodic memory. These cognitive decrements have been associated with decreased functional connectivity (FC) in the frontoparietal network (FPN) and default mode networks (DMN) with ageing. Physical activity (PA) interventions can enhance FC in these networks, but these interventions are not designed to decrease ST among older adults. Prolonged sitting (ie, sitting continuously for ≥20 min) can acutely reduce frontoparietal brain function and attentional control, while a single PA bout lasting at least 20 min can enhance them. It has been theorised that stimulation of the cerebral norepinephrine release through peripheral increase in catecholamines may explain this effect. In contrast, the effects of shorter (<10 min) PA bouts used to interrupt prolonged sitting on neurocognitive functions remain poorly understood. This pilot randomised crossover feasibility trial capitalises on PA intensity as the major limiting factor in peripheral catecholamine increase and tests the effects of interrupting prolonged sitting every 30 min with 6 min high-intensity interval training (HIIT) compared with low-intensity interval training (LIIT) bouts. The study will address three aims: (1) to assess feasibility, acceptability, fidelity and safety of HIIT breaks to improve neurocognitive function in middle-aged and older adults; (2) to quantify the differences between conditions in the change in the amplitude and latency of the P3b component of event-related potentials (a marker for frontoparietal function) and (3) to explore the differences between conditions in attentional control, episodic memory and FC of the FPN and DMN in middle-aged and older adults.
Methods and analysis
54 healthy adults, aged 40–75 years, will be recruited from the local community and randomly assigned to a condition sequence (HIIT, LIIT vs LIIT and HIIT). Each HIIT bout comprises a 1 min warm-up, 2 min at 90% of the maximum heart rate (HR max ), 1 min passive rest and 2 min at 90% HR max . During 2 min intervals in LIIT, participants exercise at 57%–60% of HR max . The primary outcomes include the feasibility (recruitment and retention rates, percentage of valid electroencephalogram data), acceptability of time commitment, HIIT bouts and neurocognitive assessments, fidelity (the intensity of HIIT breaks, percentage of time spent sitting) and the amplitude and the latency of the P3b component of event-related brain potentials measured during the modified Eriksen flanker task at pretests, after the first and the third PA bout and at post-test. General linear mixed-effects models will be used to test the effects of the intervention on the P3b component.
Ethics and dissemination
The Institutional Review Board at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign provided the ethical approval for the study. Findings will be disseminated in peer-reviewed journals and at scientific conferences.
Trial registration number
NCT06243016 .
... A large number of studies have attempted to elucidate the nature and implementation of cognitive control, that is, the ability to identify conflicting tasks and adapt to them. The vast majority of studies have focused on single-item interference tasks, such as the Stroop task, the Eriksen flanker task, and the Simon task (Draheim et al., 2021), in which each item appears individually on the screen with a temporal gap between trials (i.e., interstimulus intervals; MacLeod, 2005). A possible drawback of these tasks is that they may not pose a sufficient challenge to cognitive control mechanisms, thereby limiting the range of cognitive control performance that can be studied. ...
Studies of cognitive control using tasks with isolated (single-item) vs. multiple (multi-item) itempresentation have shown that multi-item tasks may be more effective in capturing limitations ofthe cognitive control system arising from capacity constraints. Importantly, during multi-itemtasks, performance decreases but does not collapse, consistent with effective management ofcognitive overload. This has been interpreted by positing a strategic shift from a more parallel toa more serial processing, whereby the processing of the current item is prioritized overupcoming items, termed lockout scheduling. Here, we investigate this proposal by examiningwithin-task modulations of eye-voice span (EVS) measures and articulation duration in multiitem color naming tasks with and without internal interference (i.e., incongruent and neutralStroop conditions). We hypothesized that lockout scheduling would manifest itself acrossmeasures and conditions as the task progresses and cognitive overload emerges. The resultsshowed dynamic changes in both EVS and articulation measures as a function of time-on-task,consistent with the gradual implementation of a lockout scheduling strategy in response toemerging cognitive overload. The observed patterns indicate that the shift from a more parallelto a more serial processing is not an all-or-none phenomenon but a dynamic interplay betweengaze, voice, and covert (i.e., parafoveal) attention, affecting online decisions about spatialdistance, timing, and processing resource allocation.
... We measured attention control with the antisaccade, selective visual arrays, a Stroop task with an adaptive response deadline, and auditory versions of the flanker, Simon, and Stroop tasks with an adaptive response deadline. See Draheim et al. (2021Draheim et al. ( , 2023, Martin et al. (2021), Tsukahara and Engle (2023), and Burgoyne et al. (2024) for the reliability and validity of the attention control measures. ...
Mental speed theories of intelligence suggest that people are smarter because they are faster. We argue that attention control plays an important and fundamental role in mediating the relationship between basic sensory processes and more complex cognitive processes such as fluid intelligence. One of the most successful paradigms for establishing a mental speed theory of intelligence is the inspection time task. In this article, we examine the mental speed and the attention control perspectives on the inspection time task and its relationship with fluid intelligence. Integrating experimental and correlational approaches, we find that attention control statistically explains the inspection time task’s correlation with fluid intelligence and working memory capacity. Attention control and inspection time are correlated beyond their relationship with other measures of processing speed. Further, while we find no evidence that selective attention specifically is related to inspection time performance, both attention control and inspection time predicted declines in accuracy as participants sustained their attention over time; other measures of processing speed did not predict sustained attention performance. Collectively, these results indicate that inspection time is related to the ability to control attention, especially the ability to sustain attention over time.
... Future research should consider using a battery of tasks to obtain a more stable estimate of an individual's attentional control capacity. Further, it is better to include tasks that use accuracy as an outcome measure (see Draheim et al., 2021) because reaction time difference scores suffer from low reliability and cannot account for speed-accuracy trade-offs; this latter issue may be especially problematic in developmental research (Draheim et al., 2019). ...
... Children could appear to lack automaticity because they lack specific knowledge of graphophonemic mappings (which allow reading of unfamiliar words), or of orthographic representations of familiar words; or because they have low overall processing speed (which is also associated with reading and language outcomes; see, e.g., Gerst et al., 2021;Kail, 2000;Miller et al., 2001). Moreover, in typical response time measures, speed-accuracy tradeoffs (Draheim et al., 2021;Förster et al., 2003), response planning, selection, and motor speed (Eriksen, 1995;Luce, 1986) entangle word reading automaticity with other concurrently active processes. ...
We report two experiments demonstrating that visual word recognition is impeded by the presence of nearby stimuli, especially adjacent words. Reading research has converged on a consensus that skilled readers control their attention to make use of information from adjacent (primarily upcoming) words, increasing reading efficiency. Other lines of research seem to point to potential interference from nearby items, yet this has not been investigated at the critical lexical level. To specifically target lexical activation, here we employ a novel variant of the visual world paradigm with masked (75 ms) flanked visual word targets, contrasting five flanker conditions across two experiments, namely none, repeated symbols, unknown font strings, pseudowords, and words. Analysis of multiple observed variables from 60 and 58 adult Norwegian speakers showed strong interference compared to no flankers-for all flanker conditions except the repeated symbols. Interference increased with additional levels of possible flanker processing, and was greatest for higher-frequency word targets, consistent with rapid dynamic modulation of attentional breadth. Our findings demonstrate that nearby words interfere with lexical activation of the fixated word and call for a more nuanced approach to the role of preview in fluent reading. We conclude that skilled reading involves a constant complex interplay between the drive toward efficiency, which requires a broad attentional field, and the need to shield processing from interference, which limits attentional breadth.
