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Statue of Asklepios holding his staff, with the snake entwined around it. Museum of the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, Greece; IV. Revenue Service of Prehistorical and Classical Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Ó Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism-Fund of Archaeological Resources) 

Statue of Asklepios holding his staff, with the snake entwined around it. Museum of the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, Greece; IV. Revenue Service of Prehistorical and Classical Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Ó Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism-Fund of Archaeological Resources) 

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The snake has served as a medical emblem for more than 2400 years, since its association with the ancient Greek god of medicine and healing, Asclepius, in the 4th century BC. Its symbolic background can be traced further back to the worship of gods of earth's blossom in ancient Egypt and earth-related deities of the archaic period of Greek antiquit...

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... him a speedy recovery [15]. Furthermore, according to contemporary beliefs, the sick attending the temples of Asclepius were visited in their dreams by the physician assuming the form of a serpent. In Asclepian anaglyphs of classical ancient Greece, the snake accom- panies the healing god, entwined around his staff or coiled beneath his throne (Fig. 2). From great temples to simple households, the presence of a snake was thought to provide protection from misfortune throughout ancient Greece ( = house ? = guard, = snake), another tradition that continues to this ...

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... Los símbolos son una poderosa representación de la evolución de las culturas como valores históricos, también éticos [1]; imágenes como el corazón, los ojos, el hígado o el cerebro son atributos de la salud humana, emociones o cognición, pero ninguno es incluido en los símbolos de la medicina [1]. Es común que se utilicen símbolos de medicina que se basan en deidades o bestias grecorromanas [1,2,7], hebreas [1,4], iraníes [3,5], egipcias [6], sirias [3,5], minoicas, italianas [3], símbolos suizos o de prescripciones [7], entre otros. La mayoría de los hospitales, escuelas de medicina, clínicas, cuerpos profesionales, prescripciones y revistas científicas médicas utilizan alguno de los símbolos de medicina conocidos [7]. ...
... La mitología griega es conocida por Apolo (dios de la luz, sol, verdad y medicina); su hijo Asclepio, dios de la sanación, que fue enseñado por Quirón (centauro que enseñó sobre medicina y cirugía); las hijas de Asclepio, Higía, diosa de la higiene y limpieza (medicina preventiva), y Panacea, diosa de los remedios (búsqueda indirecta médica) [1,2,3,4], al igual que sus dos hijos que se mencionan en La Ilíada, Macaón y Podalirio, médicos del ejército de Troya [3]. El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Esculapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1,3]. ...
... El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Esculapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1,3]. Tiene varios significados: freudiana (sexualidad), sumeria (sanar), minoica (conocer la hierba del nacimiento y resurrección; la estatua de Zurvan Akarana, que significa el arte de sanar, lo bueno y lo malo, prudencia y previsión, los buenos atributos de un médico), metafórica (fertilidad de la tierra, la conexión con nuestros ancestros y la continuidad del género de la vida y la muerte) [1,2,3,4]. La vara significa autoridad y sabiduría [3], ...
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Deidad de la medicina mexica: Ixtlilton AUTOR: MARIO JOSUÉ SANDOVAL FALCONI • orcID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8337-6008 Los símbolos son una poderosa representación de la evolución de las culturas como valores históricos, tam-bién éticos [1]; imágenes como el corazón, los ojos, el hígado o el cerebro son atributos de la salud humana, emociones o cognición, pero ninguno es incluido en los símbolos de la medicina [1]. Es común que se utili-cen símbolos de medicina que se basan en deidades o bestias grecorromanas [1, 2, 7], hebreas [1, 4], iraníes [3, 5], egipcias [6], sirias [3, 5], minoicas, italianas [3], símbolos suizos o de prescripciones [7], entre otros. La mayoría de los hospitales, escuelas de medicina, clínicas, cuerpos profesionales, prescripciones y revistas científicas médicas utilizan alguno de los símbolos de medicina conocidos [7]. El simbolismo es parte de la historia y México ha sido reconocido por sus diversas culturas, deidades, artes (principalmente los códices) y escritura, botánica, etcétera. En la medicina prehispánica, por ejemplo la azteca, se trataba de determinar si el origen de la enfermedad se debía a algún castigo divino, por un destino nefasto, por brujería o simplemente una enfermedad natural; además, la salud y la enfermedad estaban relacionadas con los estados de equilibrio que afectaban tres esferas del ser humano: lo natural, lo social y lo divino [8]. Los órganos humanos eran esenciales en los sacrificios, ya que eran ofrendas para alguna deidad en específico; el corazón era considerado el centro vital de todo lo creado [8]. Ixtlilton/Tlaltetecuin, un hombre-dios, es considerado una deidad de la medicina mexica, de niños, pintura y escritura, de la danza, del pulque y hacedor de medicinas. Daremos una revisión de esta deidad y su tlachieloni o bastón que tienen significado para la curación del alma o enfermedad. SÍMBOLOS MÉDICOS La mitología griega es conocida por Apolo (dios de la luz, sol, verdad y medicina); su hijo Asclepio, dios de la sanación, que fue enseñado por Quirón (centauro que enseñó sobre medicina y cirugía); las hijas de Ascle-pio, Higía, diosa de la higiene y limpieza (medicina preventiva), y Panacea, diosa de los remedios (búsqueda indirecta médica) [1, 2, 3, 4], al igual que sus dos hijos que se mencionan en La Ilíada, Macaón y Podalirio, médicos del ejército de Troya [3]. El que se utiliza a nivel global es el símbolo de Asclepio (griego) o Escu-lapio (romano), que se conforma de un bastón con una serpiente, esta última relacionada con el dragón en el caso de la cultura china y los aztecas y mayas con la serpiente emplumada Quetzalcóatl y Kukulkán [1, 3]. Tiene varios significados: freudiana (sexualidad), sumeria (sanar), minoica (conocer la hierba del nacimiento y resurrección; la estatua de Zurvan Akarana, que significa el arte de sanar, lo bueno y lo malo, prudencia y previsión, los buenos atributos de un médico), metafórica (fertilidad de la tierra, la conexión con nuestros an-cestros y la continuidad del género de la vida y la muerte) [1, 2, 3, 4]. La vara significa autoridad y sabiduría [3],
... It may be adjusted according to the clinical response. Doses can be rounded to ensure they are able to be measured by parents and care givers accurately.55 Pediatric pharmacology developed initially from the extrapolation of therapeutic practice and experience in adults and the use of "scaled down" adult doses. ...
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This reference book is prepared for students, practitioners, teachers and researchers in the field of medical and health science. Pharmacy is as old as human life. However, it was only known as a discipline at the beginning of 19th century in Ethiopia. Although pharmacy is the third largest health profession in the world, most understand it as if it is equivalent to pharmacology. Although described as a separate field by some, pharmacology is still a branch of pharmacy. Pharmacy is all about every aspects of drugs, whereas pharmacology is specifically about the interaction between drugs and living organisms or cell. Notwithstanding with the aforementioned concepts, pharmacology is the main filament that kept pharmacy in clinical practice. Had it not been for pharmacology, pharmacy would have been a purely product based applied science many years ago. The main goal of this book is thus, to provide concise information regarding the basic differences between pharmacy and pharmacology.
... At that time, prayers, sacrifices and dream interpretations played a crucial role in the healing pathway, but the ancient doctors also stitched cuts, set broken bones and administered opium for pain. 27 The foundations of medicine are in the island of Delos, which belongs to the Cyclades archipelago in the Greek sea. According to local mythology, Delos was the birthplace of Apollo, who is acknowledged as the original source of health and healing. ...
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After the dramatic coronavirus outbreak at the end of 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, on 11 March 2020, a pandemic was declared by the WHO. Most countries worldwide imposed a quarantine or lockdown to their citizens, in an attempt to prevent uncontrolled infection from spreading. Historically, quarantine is the 40-day period of forced isolation to prevent the spread of an infectious disease. In this educational paper, a historical overview from the sacred temples of ancient Greece-the cradle of medicine-to modern hospitals, along with the conceive of healthcare systems, is provided. A few foods for thought as to the conflict between ethics in medicine and shortage of personnel and financial resources in the coronavirus disease 2019 era are offered as well.
... Throughout human history, the use of symbols has been a way to present powerful ideas, whose meaning was often lost or misinterpreted with the passing of time. 1 The snake, which can be found in every culture, was used to symbolize emotions ranging from fear to adoration. 2 The characteristic to shed its skin has been associated with the circle of life and the fact that the snake's own poison can also be the antivenom made it a metaphorical symbol for medicine. 3 The two most renowned snake symbols used in medicine are the rod of Asclepius and the staff of Hermes or Caduceus. ...
... 16,[18][19][20] Minoan Crete and Ancient Greece In c. 1600 BCE, the earth's ability to renew and revive herself was worshipped in the form of Diktynna, the Minoan ''Great Goddess'', who was represented with a serpent in each hand, emphasizing her domination over earth's blossom. 1,2,10 What is more, the Cretan myth of Glaukos, son of Minos, correlates the snake with rebirth and resurrection. 1 According to Hyginus, Glaukos, son of Minos, fell into a jar full of honey and died, while he was playing ball. ...
... The snake was simultaneously a destructor and a savior. 2,6,17,22,26 Hermes According to Frothingham, the ancestor of the Greek Hermes was the Babylonian Ningishzida. Hermes was a pre-Olympian God and the proto-Hermes was a snake God. ...
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The serpent is the most popular representative symbol of medicine. The two main figures commonly used are the rod of Asclepius and the caduceus. Much controversy exists in the literature on whether the caduceus is a false symbol for medicine or not. The history of how these depictions came to be ambassadors of the medical science is elusive to many physicians. Scholars suggest that the origin of this false belief dates back to 1902, when the US Army Medical Corps first incorporated the caduceus as its symbol. This current essay is an attempt to discover and interpret how the snake came to be part of the rod of Asclepius and the caduceus, and constitute the symbol of medicine in our days. It is widely accepted that a doctor's obligation is not only in healing the ill, but the task that is bestowed upon him is more complex. Therefore, one should be considered more of a physician rather than simply a doctor.
... Associated at once with sin and death as well as rejuvenation and resurrection, the healing symbol can be traced from ancient Middle Eastern cultures (including Hebraic, passing on to Christianity and Islam), whose arrival subsumed many pagan beliefs. It has even been argued that the rod has been replaced by the cross and the serpent by Christ himself (Antoniou et al. 2011). ...
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Of some 3700 extant species of snake, less than 750 are venomous – most of them not greatly harmful to humans. Yet snakes occupy an outsized niche in human imagination, both in regard to their potential medical impacts and in other cultural roles. In this chapter, we review available information on snakebites and fatalities from around the world, describe current recommended treatment of snakebite, and review the role snakes fulfill in world folklore. Though less common and lethal than often perceived, snakebites affect an estimated five million people each year and cause as many as 125,000 fatalities. Many of the traditional “treatments” have little or no positive impact, but access to the one verified remedy, antivenin, remains particularly limited in some parts of the developing world, where most bites and fatalities occur. Perception of snakes is especially ambivalent in the developed world, perhaps because of Judeo-Christian-Islamic associations, although the Greco-Roman-derived snake-entwined staff also serves as the emblem of medicine and healing.
... The symbol depicting two entwined snake around a winged staff is referred to as the Caduceus (Figure 2) [11][12][13]. Historically, Asclepius was a demigod, the son of god Apollo, who lived in the latter part of the 8th century BC, who heals people from their sicknesses [14][15][16]. By 500 BC, the acceptance of Asclepius as a demigod of healing was more established among physician-healers in Ancient Greece, making these physician-healers to be regarded as Asclepiads -the disciples of Asclepius [15]. ...
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Background: Historically, the Rod of Asclepius is considered as the correct symbol of Medicine. Unfortunately, many medical/health institutions in the world have erroneously interchanged the Rod of Asclepius symbol with erroneous symbols (e.g. Caduceus) to depict Medicine. This study aims to assess the official logos (i.e. institutional symbols) of university teaching hospitals in Nigeria and determine if these logos actually depict the true symbol of Medicine. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional online survey of teaching hospitals in Nigeria on their official logos. A total of 40,556 operating hospitals and clinics in Nigeria were identified. After systematic screening, a total of 35 hospitals were identified as university teaching hospitals and used for the survey. Official information about the geopolitical zone, ownership and official logo of the selected hospitals was obtained (via online and offline search). Data collected was analysed using SPSS version 22 software. Results: Out of the 35 surveyed university teaching hospitals, only 7 did not have snake(s) as part of their official logo. However, out of the remaining 28 hospitals that have snake(s) as part of their official logos, only 57.1% (16/28) of them have only one snake in their logo. Exactly half of the surveyed hospitals having logos with two entwined snakes (i.e. Caduceus) were owned by the federal government. Bivariate analysis showed that there exists statistically significant relationship between the geopolitical zone where a hospital is situated and the number of entwined snakes indicated in their official logo (p-value=0.034). Conclusion: This study shows that the correct symbol of Medicine is not universally indicated in the official logos of the university teaching hospitals in Nigeria.
... There is no evidence about Caduceum (Figure 2), which is a doubleheaded snake figure wrapped around the winged rod, Caduceus (25) (Figure 3a). In Europe, only at the end of the Middle age and in early Renaissance age, the double-headed snake wrapped around the winged rod of Hermes began to be used as a symbol associated with health (18,(26)(27)(28)(29). The first official use of Caduceum is claimed to be by the US Marine Service (29) (Figure 3b). ...
... However, double-headed snake figure of God Hermes is mostly not used by medical associations in Greece. Instead, the snake figure of God Asclepius that was originated from mythology serves as a symbol for several Greek medical associations (28). ...
Article
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Currently, health-related professions and institutions are symbolized with an illustration of a snake wrapped around a branch of a tree, a stick or a rod. In this article, we will try to find out why the snake, which has influenced the humankind since the ancient ages and has been given place in legends and mythologies, has been depicted in ancient age reliefs, statues and coins, and has taken part in written texts, is accepted as the symbol of health and medicine in the light of ancient archaeological coin images.
... There is no evidence about Caduceum (Figure 2), which is a doubleheaded snake figure wrapped around the winged rod, Caduceus (25) (Figure 3a). In Europe, only at the end of the Middle age and in early Renaissance age, the double-headed snake wrapped around the winged rod of Hermes began to be used as a symbol associated with health (18,(26)(27)(28)(29). The first official use of Caduceum is claimed to be by the US Marine Service (29) (Figure 3b). ...
... However, double-headed snake figure of God Hermes is mostly not used by medical associations in Greece. Instead, the snake figure of God Asclepius that was originated from mythology serves as a symbol for several Greek medical associations (28). ...
... Bir başka Yunan tanrısı Hermes'in (Roma mitolojisinde Merkür) üzerine bir çift yılan sarılmış asası Caduceus da Ortaçağ sonundan itibaren sağlıkla ilişkilendirilmiştir. Günümüzde sağlıkla ilişkili bir takım kuruluşlar da Caduceus'u sağlık sembolü olarak kullanmaktadır. 32 ...
... Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by snakes and ascribed to them a diverse set of properties and character traits. Especially, in mythologies from South America through ancient Egypt to the Asian world, snakes and snake-like creatures represent both good and evil [1][2][3][4]. Most of them appear as symbols of wisdom and protection, and healing aspects have often been attributed to them [2]. ...
... Most of them appear as symbols of wisdom and protection, and healing aspects have often been attributed to them [2]. Even today, the Aesculapius, the snake-wrapped rod of the Hellenic god Asclepius, and the winged Caduceus of Hermes symbolize medical, veterinarian and pharmacological professions [3]. On the other hand, based on encounters with humans, snakes are also known and feared for their bites and their possible consequences. ...
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The Asian world is home to a multitude of venomous and dangerous snakes, which are used to induce various medical effects in the preparation of traditional snake tinctures and alcoholics, like the Japanese snake wine, named Habushu. The aim of this work was to perform the first quantitative proteomic analysis of the Protobothrops flavoviridis pit viper venom. Accordingly, the venom was analyzed by complimentary bottom-up and top-down mass spectrometry techniques. The mass spectrometry-based snake venomics approach revealed that more than half of the venom is composed of different phospholipases A2 (PLA2). The combination of this approach and an intact mass profiling led to the identification of the three main Habu PLA2s. Furthermore, nearly one-third of the total venom consists of snake venom metalloproteinases and disintegrins, and several minor represented toxin families were detected: C-type lectin-like proteins (CTL), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP), snake venom serine proteases (svSP), L-amino acid oxidases (LAAO), phosphodiesterase (PDE) and 5′-nucleotidase. Finally, the venom of P. flavoviridis contains certain bradykinin-potentiating peptides and related peptides, like the svMP inhibitors, pEKW, pEQW, pEEW and pENW. In preliminary MTT cytotoxicity assays, the highest cancerous-cytotoxicity of crude venom was measured against human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and shows disintegrin-like effects in some fractions.