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Among autonomous surface vehicles, sailing robotics could be a promising technology for long-term missions and semipersistent presence in the oceans. Autonomy of such vehicles in terms of energy will be achieved by renewable solar and wind power sources. Autonomy in terms of sailing decision will be achieved by innovative perception and navigation...
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Context 1
... this numerical simulator of our sailboat, a speed polar diagram can also be computed (see Fig. 4). These performance curves correspond to the steady-state maximum velocity of the vehicle for a given wind speed and a given wind direction and for headings ϕ relative to the wind direction varying from 45 • to 315 • ...
Context 2
... the field test depicted in figure 14, the mean wind angle in the NED (North-East-Down) reference frame was 330 • with a standard deviation of 13 • . The true wind speed was equal to 5.3 m/s (mean value) with a standard deviation of 0.8 m/s and the boat speed was 1.3 m/s (mean value, standard deviation: 0.3 m/s). ...
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Citations
... Table 14 presents the references related to GNC architecture systems, which are categorized by subsystem. Path planning 32 [20,28,29,36,37,45,47,76,118,128,129,132,141,150,164,[173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189] Obstacle avoidance 17 [25,31,45,121,139,140,156,160,167,[181][182][183]186,[190][191][192][193] Guidance ...
... Deep learning-based semantic segmentation/Planar homography/Line detection [128] Background segmentation and change detection Background subtraction [130] Coastline-water detection and recognition Line segment detection/coarse-to-fine strategy [133] Obstacle detection Sensor fusion/Weighted ELM binary classifier [134] Miltimodal perception for obstacle detection CNN-YOLO V7 [135] LiDAR-based ambient detection Sensor data fusion/Voxel filtering [136] Hallucinating hidden obstacles Compositional model [137] Temporal context for obstacle detection Temporal context extraction from image sequences for ambiguity reduction [138] Obstacle avoidance system CNN-YOLO V4/Vector Field Histogram (VFH) [139] Obstacle detection/Obstacle distance ranging Fuzzy Kohonen Network (FKN) [140] Obstacle detection Segmentation [141] Stereo obstacle detection Semantic segmentation [26] Real-time stationary obstacle detection and localization ...
The development of autonomous vessels and unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) has generated great interest in the scientific community due to their potential and advantages for use in various environments and applications. Several literature review papers have been produced from different perspectives, contributing to a better understanding of the topic and to the analysis of advances, challenges, and trends. We hypothesize that the greatest attention has been focused on the development of high-impact applications in the maritime sector. Additionally, we depart from the need to investigate the potential and advances of USVs in fluvial environments, which involve particular operating conditions, where there are different socio-environmental conditions and restrictions in terms of access to conventional energy sources and communication systems. In this sense, the main objective of this work is to study USVs in the particular context of small craft. The search for records was conducted in Scopus and Web of Science databases, covering studies published from 2000 to May 16, 2024. The methodology employed was based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, which is a widely recognized protocol that ensures quality and rigor in systematic reviews and bibliometric analyses. To optimize the data collection and selection process, the semaphore technique was additionally implemented, allowing for an efficient categorization of the studies found. This combined methodological approach facilitated a systematic and transparent evaluation of the literature. This study was developed based on three research questions about the evolution of research topics, areas of application, and types of algorithms related to USVs. The study of the evolution of works on USVs was carried out based on the results of the meta-analysis generated with the Bibliometrix tool. The study of applications and developments was carried out based on information obtained from the papers for six study categories: application environment, level of autonomy, application area, algorithm typology, methods, and electronic devices used. For each of the 387 papers identified in the databases, labeling was performed for the 359 screened papers with six study categories according to the availability of information in the title and abstract. In the categories application sector, autonomy level, application area and algorithm type/task, it was identified that most studies are oriented toward the maritime sector, the developments to achieve full autonomy for USVs, the development of designs or algorithms at the modeling and simulation level, and the development and implementation of algorithms for the GNC subsystems. Nevertheless, this research has revealed a much wider range of environments and applications beyond maritime, military, and commercial sectors. In addition, from the mapping of the types of algorithms used in the GNC architecture, the study provides information that can be used to guide the design of the subsystems that enable USV autonomy for civilian use in restricted environments.
... Although the boat technically can sail in these areas, they are avoided in practice due to instability-related safety concerns. These speed polar diagrams and exclusion zones are essential references for the local path planning algorithm [83]. ...
... In [83], a novel potential field method is introduced for navigating and controlling unmanned sailboats, designed to accommodate the unique kinematic constraints of sailboats. This method incorporates virtual obstacles surrounding the boat to depict upwind and downwind no-go zones, effectively translating specific sailing limitations into virtual barriers. ...
A marine autonomous surface vehicle (ASV) is a kind of autonomous marine robot with intelligent and flexible use advantages. They are mainly divided into two categories: unmanned vessels and unmanned sailboats. Marine ASVs are essential in marine science, industry, environmental protection, and national defense. One of the primary challenges faced by marine ASVs is autonomously planning paths in an intricate marine environment. Numerous research findings have surfaced in recent years, including the combination with popular machine learning. However, a systematic literature review is still lacking, primarily a comprehensive comparison of two types of ASV path planning methods. This review first introduces the problem and evaluation indicators of path planning for ASVs. Then, aiming at unmanned vessels and sailboats, respectively, it sorts out various path planning algorithms proposed in the existing literature, including the advantages and limitations of both kinds of ASVs, and discusses them in combination with evaluation indicators. Also, this paper explores how marine environmental factors affect path planning and its corresponding treatment methods. Finally, this review summarizes the challenges of unmanned ship path planning, proposes potential technical solutions and future development directions, and aims to provide references for further development in this field.
... Obviously, the solar panels are associated with battery banks in order to provide the stationary and dynamic power of the boat. Another type of solar boat [115], which also uses wind energy, has the goal to reach the state of autonomous sailing boats. The cited boat has a panoramic camera for recognizing the environment, a sonar, and a pair of hydrophones for obstacle detection. ...
The increasingly stringent requirements—in terms of limiting pollutants and the constant need to make maritime transport safer—generated the necessity to foresee different solutions that are original. According to the European Maritime Safety Agency, the total number of reported marine casualties and incidents is 21.173 over the period 2014–2021, with a yearly average of 2.647 casualties and incidents. According to the same source, 495 cases of pollution were reported in the period from 2014 to 2021. Marine pollution by ships’ fuel and other pollutants is linked to 64.2% of all pollution. It is mandatory to offer a new kind of ship that can exploit new technologies to increase safety for people and onboard goods. It has been found that existing marine structures for maritime mobility do not have essential sensors for avoiding emergency situations such as flooding, oil spills, or health situations requiring efficient monitoring. In addition, there is a lack of legislation defining the insertion of unmanned vehicles into the actual marine infrastructure. This review highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of sensors in the maritime sector, intensifying areas of improvement for future challenges, such as sensor energy efficiency, data processing, sensor fusion methodologies, and accurate sea state description with environmental monitoring by means of unmanned vehicles.
... A solving method for a polar diagram called Quantified Set Inversion (QSI) has been proposed (Herrero et al., 2010). This polar diagram was applied in many sailboat papers to determine sailboat potential or for use as a lookup table for speed control (Briere, 2008;Plumet et al., 2015;Pêtrès et al., 2011;Elkaim and Kelbley, 2006a;Abrougui et al., 2019b;Saoud et al., 2015b;Treichel and Jouffroy, 2010;Xiao et al., 2012;Shen et al., 2019). ...
... As a result, local path planning generates the proper desired heading and speed, which will be sent to a control system afterward. Methods used to achieve this goal include: Line-of-Sight (LOS) (Yang et al., 2021;Lee Boyce and Hugh Elkaim, 2007;Deng et al., 2020a;Plumet et al., 2013) and Potential Field (PF) (Ulysse et al., 2019;Plumet et al., 2013Plumet et al., , 2015Pêtrès et al., 2011Pêtrès et al., , 2012Liu et al., 2016). ...
In recent decades, marine robots have become increasingly important for a wide range of applications in bodies of water, including oceans, gulfs, and lakes. One type of unmanned surface vehicle that has gained attention is the autonomous sailboat, which utilizes wind as a source of propulsion, offering advantages in terms of energy consumption and continuous operation. While autonomous sailboats face limitations in motion and constraints compared to conventional unmanned surface vehicles that use motors, sailing maneuvering techniques can provide motion capability to reach a destination. This survey paper provides a comprehensive overview of autonomous sailboats, including their fundamental background, dynamic models, and guidance systems. Control strategies for heading and speed controls are investigated and categorized based on their purposes and computational criteria. Finally, the potential applications of these control strategies are evaluated and compared, highlighting their importance for future research.
... Maritime drones are primarily utilized for scientific monitoring purposes or military operations. In scientific monitoring, autonomous sailboats equipped with limited solar panels and small batteries are often employed to power control devices and auxiliary electric motors [20][21][22][23]. Notable early applications include low-cost, reusable, re-configurable ASVs developed to facilitate research on carbon dioxide air-sea flux and phytoplankton productivity [24,25]. ...
This paper presents an examination of the primary applications of solar energy as the main power source in the maritime sector, focusing on recent developments. A comprehensive review of the existing literature, including journal articles, proceedings, and patents, is conducted to identify three prominent areas for advancing solar energy-powered boats: maritime drones, sporting boats, and short-range touristic vessels. Maritime drones primarily serve as small autonomous boats for research, conservation, or military operations. On the other hand, sporting boats include nautical and energy design competitions involving students and enthusiasts. In terms of commercial interest, there is a growing demand for environmentally friendly and low-noise boats suitable for tourist activities, particularly in protected areas. Furthermore, specific and illustrative cases are explored in a dedicated section. Lastly, potential future perspectives are discussed and elucidated.
... Compared with the potential field methods in refs. [13][14][15], it requires no prior information of obstacles and wind. Compared with the path following principles in refs. ...
There are few studies on the intelligent guidance of unmanned sailboats, which should coordinate pluralistic tasks at sea in the nature of its maneuvring intractability. To ensure the algorithmic practicability, this paper proposes a path-following and collision-avoidance guidance approach of unmanned sailboats with total formulaic description. The risk-detecting mechanism is fabricated by setting a circular detecting zone and using the time to the closest point of approach. Then, the risk of collision, the path deviation, the speed loss, and the course loss can be judged by constructing the cost functions and applying the distance to closest point of approach. The optimized heading angle is deemed as the one minimizing the aggregate cost functions, which is sought by applying and improving the beetle antennae search (BAS) algorithm. In the proposed modified BAS, the searching step is redesigned to enhance the searching efficiency. To ensure the convergence of the real heading angle to the reference, the backstepping-based control law is fabricated for the high-order sailboat model and in the linear form. The control parameters are offline optimized through the modified BAS. Compared with the adaptive control, this controller can guarantee more computation simplicity and the optimized control performance. Finally, simulation corroborates that the sailboat can successfully complete path following and collision avoidance while encountering multiple static and moving obstacles under the proposed schemes.
... Unlimited by carried fuel, an unmanned sailboat is powered by wind and solar energy and has the advantages of long-duration and wide-range cruising on the sea surface [1]. In recent years, unmanned sailboats have played a unique advantage in broad applications such as marine data collection, environmental monitoring, ocean observation, etc. [2]. ...
... 1). The separation control weights are set as follows: Q y =[1] and Q u = diag(0.1, 1).J. Mar. ...
In the traditional motion control method of an unmanned sailboat, the sail and rudder are divided into two independent controllers. The sail is used to obtain the thrust and the rudder is used to adjust the yaw angle. The traditional control method does not consider the synergy between the two controllers and ignores the influence of the roll angle on sailing. It is easy for these methods to cause an excessive roll angle and large yaw angle error, which will weaken the safe navigation and accurate path tracking of an unmanned sailboat. This paper presents a collaborative control method of sail and rudder based on model predictive control. A four-degree-of-freedom kinematics and dynamics model of the unmanned sailboat considering roll angle was established, with the yaw angle and roll angle as the control objectives at the same time. The collaborative control method outputs sail angle and rudder angle simultaneously. By comparing the motion of this method and the separation control of sail and rudder under the same wind field conditions, it is verified that the collaborative control has better effects of yaw angle control and roll angle limitation and can obtain a more accurate path tracking effect.
... This work deals with the architectural design and prototyping of AI-based autonomous sailboats powered with IoT systems in order to establish seamless connectivity with both onshore control centers and other vessels. There are several approaches related to the architectural design of autonomous sailboats that inspire this work [12], [13], [14]. However, these approaches include neither IoT support nor AI computing capability. ...
Unmanned vehicles keep growing attention as they facilitate innovative commercial and civil applications within the Internet of Things (IoT) realm. In this context, autonomous sailing boats are becoming important marine platforms for performing different tasks, such as surveillance, water, and environmental monitoring. Most of these tasks heavily depend on artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, such as visual navigation and path planning, and comprise the so-called Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT). In this paper, we propose (i) the OpenBoat, an automating system architecture for AIoT-enabled sailboats with application-agnostic autonomous environment monitoring capability, and (ii) the F-Boat, a fully functional prototype of OpenBoat built with Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components on a real sailboat. F-Boat includes low-level control strategies for autonomous path following, communication infrastructure for remote operation and cooperation with other systems, edge computing with AI accelerator, modular support for application-specific monitoring systems, and navigation aspects. F-Boat is also designed and built for robustness situations to guarantee its operation under extreme events, such as high temperatures and bad weather, through extended periods of time. We show the results of field experiments running in Guanabara Bay, an important aquatic ecosystem in Brazil, that demonstrate the functionalities of the prototype and demonstrate the AIoT capability of the proposed architecture.
... Modeling and control of sailboats has been an active area of research over the past decade [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Sailboat models have been developed for trajectory control [11,8,4,12,9,13,14,15,16,17], maneuver optimization [7,6,5,18,19,20,21], and exploring the design space [3,10,22,23,24,25,26]. Examples of controllers designed for such sailboats are linear quadratic regulator (LQR) [2], fuzzy gain scheduling [9], proportional-integral-derivative (PID), and sliding mode controls in [27]. ...
This paper presents an adaptive control strategy to optimize the sailing maneuvers of an AC75 foiling sailboat competing in America's Cup. Foiling yachts have nonlinear, high-dimensional, and unstable dynamics due to several articulations for fast motions and maneuverability. Achieving aggressive and optimal maneuvers requires taking these complex dynamics into account instead of analytical optimizations using reduced-order models. We compared extremum-seeking and Jacobian learning (JL) control approaches on a full-order model to achieve optimal maneuvers and used JL to optimize articulations. The controllers were integrated with a high-fidelity sailboat simulator for safe and efficient maneuver optimization. The optimal solutions were subject to physical/actuator constraints and those enforced to ensure the feasibility of the maneuvers by humans (sailors). The close-hauled and tacking maneuvers were optimized to achieve maximum Velocity Made Good (VMG) and minimum loss of VMG, respectively. The optimal maneuvers boast a marginal VMG loss of less than 1.5%, which enables exploiting areas of good wind conditions in the racing environment.
... That is to say, the USR can sail in the upwind, the downwind or the crosswind scenes, respectively. To further improve the effectiveness of the algorithm, a potential fields-based path planning approach was developed for the navigation module of USR [16]. In the algorithm, the sail angle was computed from the speed polar diagram, which presents the correlation chart between the steady-state maximum speed and the given wind speed/angle. ...
... The first one is about the sailing speed control of USR. Actually, in the existing literatures, several researchers dedicated to obtain the maximizing sailing speed by optimizing the sail angle [16]. In [4], an online speed optimization algorithm is developed by using the extreme seeking method. ...
... 5.1. Figures 12, 13 16 Estimation ofλ gu andλ gr for the proposed scheme trol strategies. Especially, the upwind and downwind sailing guidance can achieve the zigzag trajectory and autoturn with the safety bandwidth restrictions when the USR sailing in the upwind and downwind conditions. ...
This note deals with the waypoints-based path following control problem for the unmanned sailboat robot (USR), aiming to obtain the speed controllable performance and tackle with the constraints of the unknown environment disturbances and the model uncertainties. For this purpose, the composite integral line-of-sight guidance principle is targetedly designed for the upwind, the downwind and the crosswind cases to generate the real time heading reference for the USR. For the control part, the robust fuzzy speed regulator and the heading controller are proposed by fusing the dynamic surface control and the robust fuzzy damping technique. The corresponding control inputs are the sail angle and the rudder angle, respectively. In the proposed scheme, the model unknown terms and the gain uncertainties are tackled, and there are only two adaptive parameters to be updated online. Especially, the speed controllable performance of USR is significant and meaningful for the practical path following mission. That can guarantee or enhance the stabilization of the closed-loop control system. Sufficient effort has been made to guarantee the semi-global uniform ultimate bounded stability via the Lyapunov theory. Through simulation verification, the proposed approach can obtain the satisfied heading tracking accuracy and speed regulating performance.
