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Somatosensory, vestibular, and visual sensory system interaction
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Postural control evolves from an interaction of the individual with the environment and the task. It emerges from a complex interaction of neural and musculoskeletal system, together referred as the system of postural control. Research into balance and postural control has shifted and broadened over the past few decades. To date, only few reviews w...
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Context 1
... upright equilibrium of the freely standing human is maintained by using three independent sensory sources from (Figure 1) somatosensory, vestibular inputs, and vision [20]. In their study normal young children ranging in age from 1½ to 10 years were assessed to find the strategy of control to altered support surface and visual conditions. ...
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Background
Parkinson’s disease is caused by dopaminergic neurodegeneration resulting in motor impairments as slow movement speed and impaired balance and coordination. Pulsed electromagnetic fields are suggested to have neuroprotective effects, and could alleviate symptoms.
Objective
To study 1) effects of 8-week daily transcranial pulsed electrom...
Citations
... Postural control is a function of the complex interaction of musculoskeletal and nervous systems [Samuel et al., 2015;Ivanenko and Gurfinkel, 2018]. Neural components involved in postural control are motor processes such as neuromuscular synergies, sensory processes, and higher order neural processes [Jeka et al., 2000;Ting and McKay, 2007;Kerkman et al., 2018]. ...
Comprehensive insights into balance control of individuals with hearing impairment are compared with individuals with hearing. Primary sources were obtained from 7 databases including PubMed, LILACS, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period extended from inception until January 5, 2022. The systematic review included 24 studies and 27 trials, with a total of 2,148 participants. The meta-analysis showed a significant difference in the average balance control between individuals with hearing impairment and individuals with hearing, with individuals with hearing having a favorable advantage (p = 0.001). Additionally, average balance control was found to be in favor of individuals with hearing (p = 0.001) when comparing individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports. Finally, individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports demonstrated a significantly higher average difference in balance control (p = 0.001) when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment. Our meta-analysis results indicate a balance defect in individuals with hearing impairment compared to individuals with hearing. In addition, with increasing age, the balance in individuals with hearing impairment improved. Additionally, the dependence of individuals with hearing impairment on the visual and proprioception systems to maintain balance increased. Finally, there was more dependence on the proprioception than the visual system, while individuals with hearing had stronger average balance control than individuals with hearing impairment who participated in sports, when compared to sedentary people with hearing impairment.
... Postural control is a function of the complex interaction of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems (Ivanenko & Gurfinkel, 2018;Samuel et al., 2015). Neural components involved in postural control are motor processes such as neuromuscular synergies, sensory processes, and higher order neural processes (Jeka et al., 2000;Kerkman et al., 2018;Ting & McKay, 2007). ...
Background:
Individuals with visual impairment have balance deficits; therefore, this systematic review aimed to provide comprehensive insights into the balance control of individuals with visual impairments when compared with individuals with full vision.
Methods:
Primary sources were obtained from eight databases including PubMed, LILACS, Science Direct, SCOPUS, CINAHL, PEDro, CENTRAL, and Web of Science. The search period covered years from inception to January 10, 2022.
Results:
A total of 20 studies with 29 trials with 1,280 participants were included in the systematic review. The results showed that individuals with sight had better static and dynamic balance than individuals with visual impairment (p = .001). However, individuals with visual impairment had significantly better static balance with visual perturbation and stronger static balance with visual and proprioception perturbation (p = .001). Furthermore, individuals with sight had better balance control than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports (p = .001). Finally, individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports had better balance control than sedentary people with visual impairment (p = .001).
Conclusion:
Individuals with visual impairment have defects in both dynamic and static balance when compared to individuals with sight. In addition, balance improved with increasing age in individuals with visual impairment while balance control was dependent on the proprioception and vestibular systems. Also, individuals with sight had better balance than individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports and individuals with visual impairment who participated in sports compared with sedentary people with visual impairment.
... Decrease in overall ability of visual, vestibular and somatosensory system systems with increasing age leads to decrease in balance control in elderly population which results in increased risk of falling among them. Adults past the age of 65 years are more prone to fall due to changes in their overall balance control system (4). ...
Background: The clinicians prefer subjective tools for balance assessment that are easily available and multiple researches have proved them reliable and valid for balance assessment. The force plate measures do the same postural analysis as we expect the other subjective tools to perform. Objectives: To determine the correlation between subjective and objective standard tools of balance assessment in healthy population Material and method: It was cross sectional observational study carried out at National institute of rehabilitation medicine (NIRM) Islamabad and Riphah international university Islamabad from January 2019 to June 2019.The sample size was calculated by using G power analysis graph, came out to be 64 for every age group. In this study non-probability purposive sampling technique was used. The inclusion criterion includes healthy individuals with 18-70 years of age (young (18-25 years), adult (25 -50 years), elderly (50-70 years) and both genders. Tools used in this research were BBS (Berg Balance Scale), POMA (The Performance-Oriented Mobility), TUG (Time Up and Go test), FRT (Functional Reach Test), Romberg test, SLS (Single Leg Stance), YBT (Y Balance Test) and Force plate. Results: 192 total respondents were divided in equal distribution of 64 in three age groups of elderly, adults and young. In elderly group males were 49and females were 15. In adult group males were 27 while females were 37.In young category total number of males were 27while females were 37. Mean age and SD for elderly, adults and young were 57.3±5.51, 35.4±6.97 and 22.6±1.62 respectively. This study results were affirming the fact that force plate variables has significant correlations with subjective tools of balance. (YBT, r=0.3 and SLS, r=0.8). Conclusion: This study concludes that force plate can replace or validate the subjective tools of balance that we use for different age groups. SLS (Single Leg Stance) is strongly and positively correlates with total AP sway on force plate, and shows strong negative correlation with AP standard deviation. YBT (Y-balance test) can also be validated or replaced for Total ML sway of force plate as it shows moderate correlation. On the other hand POMA, TUG, FRT shows weak and negative correlations with most of the force plate variables. Keywords: BBS (berg balance scale), ML (mediolateral), SD (standard deviation), YBT (Y-balance test)
... Postural stability is defined as the body's ability to keep its center of mass within the limits of support. In other words, it is said that the body maintains its position without changing the support surface (Samuel, Solomon, & Mohan, 2015). ...
Many studies have been conducted on child development and education from past to present. The child has an important place in the survival of societies, in improving the quality of life and in laying the foundations of the future. Investing in children who will create the future is the most reliable investment for society. Therefore, it is important to support the development and education of the child. The topics in this book, which emerged as a reflection of the innovations and thoughts in the field of child development and education, will gain practical meaning with the interests and wishes of the readers.
In order for them to become responsible, healthy individuals of the future, it is necessary to follow the development and education of children in well- equipped environments and by well-equipped people, and to work in cooperation with families and educational institutions. In order to recognize children developmentally, to support their healthy development in all developmental areas, and to provide them with appropriate learning experiences, it is necessary to have the competence to put the principles of child development and education into practice.
It is expected that this book will contribute to the field in terms of drawing attention to new trends in child development and education in the 21st century and looking at child development and education from different perspectives.
The book includes 9 chapters on children, “child development and child education”. We wish to contribute to all concerned whose target audience is children.
... As a result, we can assume that the central nervous system (CNS) must engage synergistic muscles at structurally related joints in order to regulate balance. For posture control, the CNS organizes sensory input from the visual, somatosensory, and vestibular systems (Samuel et al., 2015). ...
This case report describes how a physiotherapy program with Ayres Sensory Integration was associated with changes in a 3 years old child with low muscle tone and speech disorders. To see how the Ayres Sensory Integration Physiotherapy Program affects muscle tone, speech, and the relation between muscle tone and speech, a 24-week physiotherapy program with Ayres Sensory Integration was initiated. Before and after the therapy, Development Screening Test, speech, muscle tone, and Antigravity Test were assessed and recorded. Muscle tone, speech, Development Screening Test and Antigravity Test results have all improved. Children with low muscle tone and speech difficulties can benefit from physiotherapy programs involving Ayres Sensory Integration. In addition to speech therapy, children with speech issues should get sensory integration therapy
... Gross motor functions like sitting, standing, walking, and running are affected badly in children with CP. Children with spastic diplegic CP exhibit increased postural sway when compared with typically developing peers [11] and have poor postural stability [12]. Large muscles of the body are involved in performing gross motor functions. ...
... The sensorial information, collected following a mechanical change of receptors specific to the somatosensorial, vestibular and/or visual system, is integrated by the central nervous system (CNS) to control balance. The CNS produces various postural adjustments in response to maintaining the body's center of mass (COM) in a stable position [1]. The visual system must interact with the balance control system due to its contribution of important information about the surroundings allowing the detection of body movement relative to the structures that compose the visual field [2]. ...
Recent evidence suggests that performing a task inducing saccades will improve stability when compared to static fixation. However, they assume the linearity of postural control by only interpreting the area of displacement and/or the velocity of sway. Conversely, non-linear measures could bring a complementary understanding of postural control. The aim is to examine the effect of eye movements on different linear and non-linear measures of stability.
21 healthy adults (24.0±3.3 years) were asked to stand on a force platform with their feet together and look at the monitor in front of them. Five conditions were tested: eyes closed, random looking, fixed static point, saccade, and visual pursuit (gaze shift angle of 15°). Five 60-second trials per condition were performed. An ANOVA with repeated measures was completed for each postural control variables in each direction: antero-posterior (AP) and medio-lateral (ML).
The absence of vision had a negative impact on sway, as seen by an increase in sway area and variability as well as reduced contributions from the ultra-low band. The saccade led to greater stability than the random looking, as evidenced by a smaller area. However, the visual pursuit led to decreased stability compared to random looking, as evidenced by a larger area, as well as increased variability. Of note, the energy contained in the very-low band, which indicates the contribution of the vestibular system, was highest in the visual pursuit compared to the fixed static point.
The findings support that the visual system is an important, but complex contributor to stability as different eye movements result in distinct postural responses with saccade and visual pursuit causing a decrease and an increase in sway, respectively.
... It comprises of a combination of active mechanical control,characterized by a neural regulation of skeletal muscles responsible for sway detection and postural correction; and passive mechanical control, which refers to the stiffness and kinematic properties of the joints, as well as the effect exerted on them by gravity (Bauby and Kuo, 2000). When balance is threatened by either an external or internal perturbation, CNS initiates appropriate muscular response (Samuel et al., 2015). This is accomplished by comparing the collated afferent information to the internal model (expected state), thus eliciting a motor response, which maintains the center of mass within the limits of stability (Mancini and Horak, 2010). ...
Postural control is a complex process involving sensory inputs from visual, vestibular, proprioceptive and tactile receptors, processed by the central nervous system (CNS). Sensory information provided by muscle and cutaneous afferents in the foot optimize the ability to stand upright and control the postural sway. The foot, as a direct and often only interface between the body and the ground, constitutes an essential functional whole participating in mechanisms of postural control and regulation, allowing the body to sense and interact with the surrounding environment. Among many somatosensory stimulations designed to improve balance, wearing shoe insoles presents one of the easiest and most cost-effective ways. This method can be used both amongst elderly population for fall prevention and amongst athletes to reach better performance and furthermore prevent injuries. With the growing interest in insole use, several prototypes have been developed to monitor movement during day to day use. For therapeutic purposes, the type of insoles used in the studies was often not clarified, and the term insole was used as a general term.The proposed theme of the discussion is to review already existing data on insole use for treatment of postural balance.
... However, even though it is important to understand the methods of prediction and measurement of PC, these should not be restricted to biomechanical bias, since biomechanics does not address the intrinsic factors of the individual that act simultaneously for PC to occur, this being an investigation which transcends the expertise in the area. In this sense, the importance of intrinsic factors related to PC has been investigated (SAMUEL; SOLOMON; MOHAN, 2015;BRONSTEIN, 2016;CHIBA et al., 2016). ...
... Intrinsic factors are those related to the sensory and neural systems (SAMUEL; SOLOMON;MOHAN, 2015). Sensory systems are part of the nervous system; however, they are structures specialized in capturing internal and external stimuli to the body. ...
... Intrinsic factors are those related to the sensory and neural systems (SAMUEL; SOLOMON;MOHAN, 2015). Sensory systems are part of the nervous system; however, they are structures specialized in capturing internal and external stimuli to the body. ...
Postural control (PC) represents a basic aspect in the life of individuals and requires complex interaction between several factors that can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic factors. In the case of the extrinsic factors, an example is the force of gravity, which acts on all bodies and, due to the unequal distribution of mass and the shape of the body, can interfere in the center of mass (CoM) of the body. Like the CoM, the center of pressure (CoP) is accurate to detect changes in PC. A fall occurs when the CoM is very distant from the support base of a body. This regulation is performed by the intrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are those related to the neurophysiological and sensory components of the individual, e.g., the sensory and neural systems. The sensory systems that capture specific stimuli and send them to the CNS are the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems. The visual system captures information from the environment to aid in spatial orientation. The vestibular system informs about linear and angular accelerations of the head, and the somatosensory system detects touch stimuli, body position, temperature, and pain. The neurophysiological aspects include structures that act directly and indirectly, for example, the cerebellum and the hypothalamus, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that PC is a complex skill that involves the integration of cortical and subcortical structures, and sensory systems, which are constantly exposed to various forces acting on the body. Postural control (PC) represents a basic aspect in the life of individuals and requires complex interaction between several factors that can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic factors. In the case of the extrinsic factors, an example is the force of gravity, which acts on all bodies and, due to the unequal distribution of mass and the shape of the body, can interfere in the center of mass (CoM) of the body. Like the CoM, the center of pressure (CoP) is accurate to detect changes in PC. A fall occurs when the CoM is very distant from the support base of a body. This regulation is performed by the intrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are those related to the neurophysiological and sensory components of the individual, e.g., the sensory and neural systems. The sensory systems that capture specific stimuli and send them to the CNS are the visual, vestibular, and somatosensory systems. The visual system captures information from the environment to aid in spatial orientation. The vestibular system informs about linear and angular accelerations of the head, and the somatosensory system detects touch stimuli, body position, temperature, and pain. The neurophysiological aspects include structures that act directly and indirectly, for example, the cerebellum and the hypothalamus, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that PC is a complex skill that involves the integration of cortical and subcortical structures, and sensory systems, which are constantly exposed to various forces acting on the body.
... An abnormality has been found in EMG signals represented as a pause after a motor evoked potential, positively correlated with injury severity among athletes with a concussion 40 . The tibialis anterior (TA) plays a key role in stability control 51 , and EMG recordings from the TA have been used in postural control studies 25,43 . For a more detailed overview of EEG and EMG in concussion studies, see Table 1. ...
... This could indicate postural control and balance problems, resulting in a more active muscle when trying to stabilize in an unstable environment. Impaired postural control has been connected www.nature.com/scientificreports/ to concussion history 21 , as well as impairment in visual and vestibular systems 4,20,51 . Concerning the EMG spectral analysis, all the features computed, namely Total Power, Kurtosis, Skewness, and Median Frequency, showed a stronger statistically significant difference between PRE and POST in the concussion group compared to the non-concussion group. ...
Current diagnosis of concussion relies on self-reported symptoms and medical records rather than objective biomarkers. This work uses a novel measurement setup called BioVRSea to quantify concussion status. The paradigm is based on brain and muscle signals (EEG, EMG), heart rate and center of pressure (CoP) measurements during a postural control task triggered by a moving platform and a virtual reality environment. Measurements were performed on 54 professional athletes who self-reported their history of concussion or non-concussion. Both groups completed a concussion symptom scale (SCAT5) before the measurement. We analyzed biosignals and CoP parameters before and after the platform movements, to compare the net response of individual postural control. The results showed that BioVRSea discriminated between the concussion and non-concussion groups. Particularly, EEG power spectral density in delta and theta bands showed significant changes in the concussion group and right soleus median frequency from the EMG signal differentiated concussed individuals with balance problems from the other groups. Anterior–posterior CoP frequency-based parameters discriminated concussed individuals with balance problems. Finally, we used machine learning to classify concussion and non-concussion, demonstrating that combining SCAT5 and BioVRSea parameters gives an accuracy up to 95.5%. This study is a step towards quantitative assessment of concussion.
