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— Situations and triggers that prompted negative self-talk 

— Situations and triggers that prompted negative self-talk 

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This study examined the effectiveness of a logbook and paperclip technique on awareness of the use and content of negative self-talk as well as the motivation to change negative self-talk. Participants (n = 73) completed a questionnaire measuring these variables, and were assigned to either a control, paperclip or logbook group. Participants perfor...

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... the same two USE items (see Appendix) improved reliability of the USE scale to .87 (pre) and .79 (post), respectively. These alphas were considered acceptable. To examine the effectiveness of the respective interventions on MOTIVATION, CONTENT and USE, single-factor ANCOVAs, using pre intervention scores as the covariate, were performed on each dependent variable. ANCOVAs were chosen to maximize the power of the F test (see Bonate, 2000; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) by statistically controlling for any preintervention group differences. This was particu- larly important given that we had been unable to assign participants to groups in a completely random fashion. Because specific a-priori hypotheses were forwarded, alpha levels were set at .05 for each analysis. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was satisfied for each ANCOVA. Motivation to Change Negative Self-Talk. The ANCOVA revealed that the covariate was significant, F (1, 56) = 28.69, p < .001, eta 2 = .34. However, no significant difference between the groups emerged. Awareness of the Use of Negative Self-Talk. The ANCOVA indicated a significant effect of the covariate, F (1, 56) = 4.77, p < .03, eta 2 = .08. Furthermore, a significant difference between the groups was revealed, F (2, 56) = 6.98, p < .01, eta 2 = .20. Bryant-Paulson follow up tests indicated that the logbook group had significantly greater awareness of USE than the control group. No other group differences emerged. Table 1 displays the adjusted means for each group. Awareness of the Content of Negative Self-Talk. The final ANCOVA revealed that the covariate was significant, F (1, 56) = 17.24, p < .001, eta 2 = .24, and also, a trend toward significance was detected between the groups, F (2, 56) = 2.59, p < .08, eta 2 = .09. Despite the p -value for this analysis not reaching the conventional criteria of .05, a moderate effect size was evident from this analysis (cf. Cohen, 1988), thus a visual inspection of the adjusted means was performed. This inspection revealed the both intervention groups appeared to have greater awareness of CONTENT than the control group (see Table 1). Two subsidiary analyses were undertaken to provide a more in-depth examination of the self-talk interventions. The first analysis examined the impact of the paper clip intervention on the number of negative self-statements made. This analysis was conducted to assess two alternative possibilities: (a) if the mere act of record- ing the use of negative self-talk is an effective means of reducing it, then we might expect the number of statements to decrease across sessions 1 ; or (b) whether the self-reported use of negative self-talk increased across the workout sessions, indicative of an accompanying raised awareness. A single-factor repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference in the reported use of negative self-talk across these sessions, F (2, 46) = 3.20, p = .05, eta 2 = .12. Tukey’s follow up tests indicated that participants recorded using more negative self-talk in the third com- pared with the first training session ( p < .05). Thus, some support for the second possibility was generated. The second subsidiary analysis involved a qualitative examination of the self- talk related data reported by the logbook group. Due to the nature of the questions asked in the logbooks, the qualitative analysis focused on three main issues; the situations and triggers during training that prompted the use of negative self-talk, the content of negative self-talk during training sessions, and perceived conse- quences and feelings resulting from the use of negative self-talk. An inductive content analysis was subsequently conducted on the open ended logbook responses. To do this the procedures outlined by Côté, Salmela, Baria, and Russell (1993) were followed. The outcome of this analysis identified themes, based on internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity, which emerged from the data which were, then categorized into higher order themes. The content analysis involved discussion of the data and coding by 3 raters until consensual agreement was achieved. This approach was employed as it has been suggested to allow more thoughtful and accurate conceptualization of subsequent themes/clusters than more nomothetic interjudge agreement methods (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997). To help assure that the coding into themes was transparent and logical an independent rater suc- cessful (86% agreement rate) coded all raw data themes into the resultant emergent themes. Discussion concerning discrepant encoding resulted in one higher order theme being renamed to better reflect its content (i.e., Increased task application was renamed to Application of effort) and concluded in consensus regarding the additional raw data theme allocations. The results from the qualitative analysis can be seen in Figures 1–3. With regard to the situations and triggers that prompted the use of negative self-talk (see Figure 1), 27 themes were extracted which were then categorized into seven higher order themes. As a result, participants reported that their negative self-talk was most commonly associated with the onset of physical discomfort (e.g., pain and tiredness), the presence of task related cues (e.g., increased task difficulty), negative performance cues (e.g., underperforming and unsuccessful task execu- tion), and within different segments of the workout, with greatest endorsement for its occurrence being toward the end of a session. Although to a lesser extent, negative self-talk was also prompted by a loss of task application (e.g., wanting to stop or a loss of focus), negative attitudes (e.g., poor self-expectations), and nega- tive emotions (e.g., anger). Data related to the content of the negative self-talk were organized into 19 themes which were subsequently arranged into seven higher order themes (see Figure 2). Primarily, the content of negative self-talk was representative of the task at hand and the engagement of the participants with this task. For example, analysis of the data revealed that much of it reflected a performance orientation (e.g., not meeting expectations and performance criticisms), a lack of ability (e.g., criticisms of ability), and a lack of task application (e.g., lack of motivation or effort) although bodily discomfort (e.g., reflecting pain and tiredness) was also a well represented higher order theme. Finally, as far as the consequences and feelings following the use of negative self-talk were concerned a total of 40 data themes were extracted and then organized into 12 higher order themes (see Figure 3). These 12 higher order themes were clustered into 3 broader themes representing negative and positive consequences as well as, to a much lesser extent, neutral consequences (e.g., mixed emotions). A common trend that emerged from the higher order themes identified was that regard- less of whether the consequences were negative or positive; affective, behavioral, cognitive, and motivational aspects were represented. For example, the negative consequences cluster was comprised of higher order themes such as; negative emo- tions (e.g., frustration and annoyance), reduced performance (e.g., decreased pace), decreased psychological control (e.g., loss of focus), and a reduction in motivation (e.g., less determined to continue). On the other hand, examples of positive conse- quences which emerged from the data included; positive affect (e.g., feeling more positive), application of effort (e.g., increased effort), the use of cognitive strate- gies (e.g., increased focus), and elevated motivation (e.g., motivated to continue). The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the effectiveness of two intervention approaches (i.e., a logbook and paperclip exercise) which have been advanced within the self-talk literature (e.g., Zinsser et al., 2006) to enhance the awareness of self-talk. The specific focus of our study was negative self-talk and in particular, awareness of the use and content of negative self-talk as well as the motivation to alter the use of negative self-talk. Results offered initial partial support for the a priori hypotheses. Although neither intervention group differed from the control group for the motivation dependent variable, the logbook group reported significantly better awareness of their use of negative self-talk (i.e., how much was used), and tended to have greater awareness of their content of negative self-talk (i.e., what was used), in comparison with the control group. Consequently, the awareness oriented findings were somewhat consistent with our theorizing. Taken together, these preliminary findings offer some promising evidence that may help guide consultants’ practice. Although both interventions are rela- tively inexpensive, simple, and portable, when one considers the present findings collectively, it appears that the logbook technique might be of greater value than the paperclip approach. This stance can be justified by the findings that although both treatments groups produced equivalent awareness of the content of negative self-talk, the logbook group reported greater awareness than the control group concerning the use of negative self-talk. The logbook has the logistical advantage of also being less invasive and potentially disruptive than the paperclip technique. In addition, the logbook technique might encourage deeper self-reflection by the client regarding his/her use of negative self-talk as compared with the paperclip protocol. Dependent on the questions posed, this might also include such issues as the sources of his/her negative self-talk and situations that prompt it, for example. Nevertheless, it should be highlighted that the logbook approach employed in the current study can be improved; tailored to the individual and more fully incorpo- rated into the sports environment. Indeed, it has been suggested that statements used ...

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... • Lily will maintain a log of her efforts to alter negative self-talk, a technique with proven efficacy (Hardy et al., 2009). ...
... According to experimental research, those who struggle to focus on relevant stimuli are more likely to become distracted (23). The benefits of self-talk have been discussed, including its ability to enhance attentional processes (24) and manage internal and external distractions. Thus, it appears from the current research that educational strategic self-talk has improved dart-throwing performance by enhancing focus and decreasing distraction. ...
... Self-talk or inner speak addressed to the self, pertains to phrases or statements individuals recite aloud or internally to increase motivation and focus (Hardy et al., 2009). This strategy has been a frequently used psychological skill (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2016) and has long been used to enhance performance in sports (Hardy et al., 2009). ...
... Self-talk or inner speak addressed to the self, pertains to phrases or statements individuals recite aloud or internally to increase motivation and focus (Hardy et al., 2009). This strategy has been a frequently used psychological skill (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2016) and has long been used to enhance performance in sports (Hardy et al., 2009). Much of the self-talk literature stems from the sport domain, with studies reporting that 85% of adult athletes engage in self-talk during sport-related activities (Nedergaard et al., 2021). ...
... The authors stated that this finding might have resulted from participants in the negative (plus challenging) self-talk group internalizing portions of the negative self-talk statement and possibly perceiving the negative statement as challenging (i.e., I can push through it), which led to improved performance. Additionally, participants could perceive a motivational component of negative self-talk, which could enhance performance (Hardy et al., 2009), and negative self-talk could promote a challenge state, which has been associated with improved motor task performance (Hase et al., 2019). Regarding self-talk type (i.e., motivational vs. instructional), Hatzigeorgiadis and colleagues (2014) proposed a matching hypothesis. ...
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... Based on our findings, we recommend that sport consultants and coaches observe and keep frequencies to document selftalk use, and match this with self-report of perceived climate and motivation. Journaling and reflecting on what they say to themselves during sport experiences can facilitate and guide athletes through their self-talk (Hardy et al., 2009). When there are opportunities to observe, the coach can gain a sensitivity to the youth's private speech, and can use this speech as a tool to guide their instruction and scaffold sport skill (Winsler, 2009). ...
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