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Self-Determination Theory (based on Ryan & Deci, 2000).
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Building on Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory and Meijman and Mulder's Effort-Recovery Model, the present study examined the nature, antecedents, and consequences of working hard (i.e., workaholism and work engagement) in a Dutch convenience sample of 1,246 employees. A confirmatory factor analysis showed that workaholism and work engagemen...
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Context 1
... SDT, four forms of extrinsic motivation are distinguished that vary regarding the extent to which people engage in an activity with a sense of volition and choice. In other words, the different types of extrinsic motiva- tion can be placed along a continuum ranging from non-self-determined behavior to self-determined be- havior , cf. Figure 1). First, two controlled or non-self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation are distinguished: external and introjected regulation. ...
Context 2
... regards the subscale Working Compul- sively, one parcel consisted of 3 items, whereas the other included 4 items. Results of the confirmatory factor analyses showed that a two-factor model in which the item parcels of the DUWAS loaded on a latent factor and the subscales of the UWES loaded on a second latent factor fitted the data relatively well, 2 (N 1,246, df 13) 331.4, NFI .94, ...
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Citations
... Moreover, to be reachable, these objectives must become employee focus (Islami et al., 2018). For workaholic and engaged employees, these high objective levels will be attainable through solid effort, whether with or without enjoyment (Van Beek et al., 2011). ...
This study employs a quantitative design to examine the impact of job stress and workload on employee turnover intention, the relationship between workload and job stress, and the mediating effect of job stress on the association between workload and this intention. The population comprises the employees of Company X in West Java, specifically in the southern region, totaling 898. Furthermore, the Issac and Michael formula counts the representative samples, i.e., 270. After distributing the questionnaire, this study received only 238 responses. Then, their responses are analyzed using the covariance-based structural equation model. Finally, this investigation reveals a positive effect of job stress and workload on turnover intention, a positive association between workload and job stress, and job stress acting as the mediation. Based on this evidence, this study provides guidelines for the company to develop a comprehensive retention strategy that aligns with this intention, thereby preventing the loss of productive employees.
... Merely looking at the number of hours worked does not provide insights into addictive behavior, despite earlier studies equating work addiction with excessive work [42]. It is now evident that work addiction has only a low or moderate correlation with the number of hours worked [43,44]. In other words, while all people affected by work addiction work extensively, not everyone who works a lot has a work addiction. ...
... Furthermore, controlled regulations were more robust predictors of compulsive work compared to excessive work. In addition, several studies have reported that among the controlled regulations, introjected regulation exhibits the strongest association with work addiction [44,51,52]. According to these studies, individuals with work addiction are primarily compelled to continue working in order to evade negative emotional states such as anxiety, shame, or guilt. ...
The current comprehensive study investigated the relationship between work addiction (WA), personality traits, and motivations, focusing on their roles in WA persistence and recovery. The objective was to explore the capacity of personality dimensions and work motivation to predict the chronicity of WA, symptom variation, and gender differences. Over a four-year study of 586 participants (51.4% female), the Bergen Work Addiction Scale was used to assess WA at two time points. Individual differences were assessed by Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire, Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, short Brief Symptom Inventory, Ruminative Response Scale, and Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale at Time 1. Latent class analysis identified two primary groups in the entire sample: individuals with persistent WA and those without. While females aligned with these groups, males exhibited five distinct latent classes. In females, chronic WA was associated with lower self-esteem, higher self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, rumination, psychological distress, and increased extrinsic motivation. In males, the chronic WA group exhibited heightened levels of perfectionism, rumination, psychopathological distress, lower self-esteem, and elevated extrinsic and introjected regulations compared to the other WA groups. These findings emphasize the possibility of WA persisting over an extended period, with personality traits and motivations playing a significant role in this endurance. These results not only advance our understanding of WA but also provide valuable insights for future research on protective factors against WA. Furthermore, the findings have significant practical implications, including addressing excessive perfectionism in work environments and offering avenues for future research.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-025-02907-6.
... Workaholism (Schaufeli et al., 2008) has multiple drawbacks for organizational and individual functioning (e.g., Clark et al., 2016;van Beek et al., 2011), although not all forms of workaholism seem to be equally undesirable. Schaufeli, Shimazu, and Taris (2009) initially conceptualized workaholism as two components: working excessively (WE; the behavioral facet of workaholism, involving devoting a substantial time and effort to work at the expense of other life domains) and working compulsively (WC; the emotional and motivational facets of workaholism, and involving a persistent obsession with work), operationalized through the Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS). ...
... Plugged In employees might thus display high levels of G/S levels of workaholism because they face too many hindrances likely to interfere with their ability to meet challenges (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017;Gillet et al., 2024). These hindrances may also interfere with autonomous motivation (i.e., motivated desire, interest, or choice; Ryan & Deci, 2017), and lead to low levels of work engagement and high levels of controlled motivation (i.e., internal and/or external pressures; Ryan & Deci, 2017) and workaholism (van Beek et al., 2011). Indeed, Plugged In employees might believe that no reasonable level of effort will be adequate to meet the demands of their work life, leading them to expand resources (Hobfoll, 2011) that could otherwise be used to handle more stimulating challenges (LePine et al., 2005). ...
... From the perspective of the conservation of resource theory (Hobfoll, 2011), we can expect employees displaying high levels of workaholism to devote a great deal of effort, time, and energy to their work (Clark et al., 2020). However, the resources able to maintain this important involvement (van Beek et al., 2011) are limited (Hobfoll, 2011) and may become insufficient to support workers' investment in other professional or personal domains. Possibly to account for this resource depletion, the uncontrollable urge to work of employees displaying high levels of workaholism often leads them to neglect other activities and to experience difficulties establishing healthy boundaries between work and other spheres of life (Clark et al., 2016). ...
We used a person‐centered approach to identify the profiles of workaholism observed in six samples, including 12 subsamples, of employees (N = 7944). These profiles were defined while considering workers' global levels of workaholism, together with their specific levels of motivational, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral workaholism. We also considered the extent to which these profiles and their relations with covariates (work–family conflict, harmonious passion, and obsessive passion) generalized across all subsamples. Our results revealed a total of five profiles (Preoccupied Employees with Very Low Global Levels of Workaholism, Disengaged Employees with Low Global Levels of Workaholism, Motivated and Involved Employees with Moderately Low Global Levels of Workaholism, Normative, and Preoccupied Employees with High Global Levels of Workaholism). Systematically, the Normative profile was the most prevalent (43.7% to 63.2% across subsamples), whereas the Preoccupied Employees with Very Low Global Levels of Workaholism profile was the least prevalent (0.4% to 8.9%). The Preoccupied Employees with High Global Levels of Workaholism profile presented the highest levels of obsessive passion and work–family conflict, and the lowest levels of harmonious passion. Beyond their theoretical implications for research on workaholism, these results highlight how workaholism has highly similar implications across contexts.
... For instance, collectivism encourages practices such as staying at work to help colleagues, even if THE COST OF COLLECTIVISM 9 one has completed their own tasks 8) . Meanwhile, workaholics are primarily motivated by a controlled motivation, driven to meet external standards of self-worth and social approval without fully internalising them 36) . Therefore, workaholics are motivated to meet workplace expectations in pursuit of external approval and validation of their self-esteem, while failure to do so may result in negative emotions 37) . ...
Over 10,000 Japanese people are estimated die annually from overwork. Yet, the reasons why some employees in certain cultures persist in exploitative work environments remain unclear. This study investigates psychosocial factors that prevent exploited employees from leaving their organisations, with a specific emphasis on the role of collectivism. We hypothesise that perceptions of an overwork climate and elevated levels of workaholism contribute to employees’ feelings of exploitation, subsequently increasing turnover intentions. Additionally, we predict that collectivism exacerbates the effect of overwork climate on workaholism and weakens employees’ intentions to leave their exploitative work environment. Data from 147 Japanese employees were collected via online surveys using snowball sampling. Factor score path analysis and mediation tests (5,000 bootstrap samples) were employed to test our hypotheses. Results suggested that feelings of exploitation are positively linked to turnover intentions, which are driven by the perception of an overwork climate and employees’ compulsive orientation towards work. Importantly, collectivism weakened the link between perceived exploitation and turnover intentions. This study provides an account of the complex interplay between organisational climate, culture, and the impact of feeling exploited on employees’ intentions to quit, highlighting the potential adverse effects of collectivism on employees.
... These characteristics may strengthen teachers' sense of his/ her ability to control and impact upon their environment successfully (Kamtsios & Lolis, 2016). These teachers may relay exclusively on autonomous motivation during their professional activity and primary on intrinsic motivation, which leads to the extraction of positive emotions and satisfaction of the profession, without the aspect acting at the expense of other aspects of their identity (Van Beek et al., 2011). This pattern of results may suggest that teachers in cluster three may characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption meaning, they are energetic, involved and concentrated in their job (Schaufeli et al., 2002). ...
The study aims at investigating teachers’ burnout, motivational and affective profiles. Moreover, the study explores differences in stress, anxiety and depression levels among teachers’ profiles. The sample comprised of 816 participants who completed the following scales: (a) “Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey”, (b) Passion Scale”, (c) “Positive and Negative Affect scale” and (d) DASS-21. A clustering approach through latent profile analysis revealed four teachers’ profiles: 1. Workaholics (18.25%), 2. Moderate Burnout (28.67%), 3. Normal Workers (42.15%) and 4. Extreme Burnout (10.90%). The study also revealed differences between the profiles in terms of teachers’ stress, anxiety and depression levels. The third profile (Normal Workers) showed the lowest levels in all three variables, followed by the first profile (Workaholics). The second profile (Moderate Burnout) showed relatively high levels and the fourth profile (Extreme Burnout) the highest stress, anxiety and depression levels. Through multinomial logistic regression, discriminant analysis and the decision tree, depression and stress emerged as predictive/differentiating factors for the inclusion of participants in the profiles, with an accuracy around 55%. The distinction between teachers profiles’ will facilitate the recognition of teachers already experiencing burnout or at high risk (Extreme and Moderate Burnout profiles), so that they receive first-line therapeutic interventions while teachers belonging to the more adaptive profiles (Workaholics and Normal Workers) could benefit more from prevention-oriented programs. These programs can be utilized by school psychologists and policy makers in school contexts aiming at reducing dysphoric burnout emotions on a therapeutic level and raising awareness informing and psychoeducating on a preventive level.
... Working can be used by a workaholic as a coping mechanism. It fulflls three functions: it allows for building sense of value through work, it dampens stress in other areas of life, and it gives a sense of control over at least one area of life [72]. While these mechanisms may work as short-term solutions, they will always become a growing problem from a longer perspective. ...
Aim: The aim of this study is to analyze the phenomenon of workaholism among Polish nurses.
Background: Work may be deemed one of the fundamental or essential forms of human activity. In the case of nurses, the expected level of professional commitment and dedication is above average. This factor may be an important element contributing to developing workaholism, which in turn is a strong prognostic factor for adverse events in the workplace, an especial critical issue in nursing practice.
Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted from 2016 to 2019. The research material consisted of 454 questionnaire forms completed by nurses with a confirmed high risk of workaholism.
Results: The mean values obtained in the study indicate the aspects as significant for characterizing the phenomenon of workaholism among nurses: Need for Predictability, Enthusiasm for Work, Impairment of Alternative, Extreme Dutifulness, Inability to Delegate, and Work Compulsion.
Conclusion: The results show that two aspects are particularly significant for characterizing workaholism among Polish nurses: Inability to Delegate and Work as Value. Impairment of Alternative Activities, Extreme Dutifulness, Distributed Social Relations and Awareness, Stress and Anxiety, Enthusiasm for work, Need for predictability, and Work Compulsion proved to be less significant factors of workaholism characteristics in the study group. Therefore, the research attention should primarily focus on two more characteristic areas, e.g., Inability to Delegate and Work as Value, starting with a proper understanding of those concepts.
... Araştırmalar incelendiğinde, Johns, (2011)47 çalışmanın zorunlu olduğu ortamlarda presenteizmin gelişim göstermesi iş ve aile yönünden çatışma yönetimini olumsuz etkileyerek zorlaştırdığını ifade etmektedir48,49 . Bir birey/sporcu üstleri veya iş/takım arkadaşlarıyla özgürce iletişim kurabiliyorsa, sorun yaşadığında destek almak için iş/takım arkadaşlarına güvenebiliyorsa veya kişisel konularda tavsiye isteyebiliyorsa, ters etki oluşturduğu 50 düşünüldüğünde, presenteizm riskinin daha düşük olduğu ve çatışma yönetiminin sağlandığı 51 , presenteizmin yüksek normatif bağlılığın bir işareti olarak görülüp çatışma yönetimine destek olabileceği düşünülse de aksine, duygusal tükenme algılarını tetiklediği için çatışma ortamına zemin hazırladığı 52,53 fakat kendini örgütle özdeşleştiren, örgütsel amaç ve hedefleri benimseyen bireylerin sağlık durumları kötü olsa bile görevlerini yerine getirmek için çalışmaya devam eden presenteizm anlayışının var olduğu ve çatışma yönetimine pozitif etki sağladığı belirtilmektedir54,55 . ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı, Sporcuların presenteizm düzeylerinin çatışma yönetimlerine etkisini incelemektir. Araştırmanın örneklemini, 2024-2025 eğitim-öğretim yılı Üniversitelerarası spor müsabakalarına katılan 110 kadın 191 erkek toplam 301 sporcudan oluşmaktadır. Araştırmanın veri toplama kısmında araştırmacı tarafından düzenlenen “Kişisel Bilgi Formu”, Coşkun, (2012)1 tarafından Türkçe’ye uyarlanan “Stanford Presenteizm Ölçeği” Sökmen ve Yazıcıoğlu, (2005)2 tarafından Türkçe’ye uyarlaması yapılan “Çatışma Yönetimi Stilleri Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Sporcuların presenteizm ve çatışma yönetimleri arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemek için Pearson korelasyon katsayısı, etkiyi belirlemek için ise regresyon analizinden faydalanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda, sporcularda Presenteizm ile ÇYSÖ toplam puanları (r=.436, p=.000) arasında pozitif yönlü orta düzeyde ilişki olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Presenteizm ile ÇYSÖ alt boyutlarından YRD (r=.302, p=.000), UD (r=.399, p=.000), KD (r=.409, p=.000) ve UYD (r=.362, p=.000) arasında pozitif yönlü orta düzeyde ilişki olduğu belirlenmiştir. Presenteizm ve ÇYSÖ toplam puanı (R2=.190; p=.000), arasında pozitif yönlü bir etki olduğu saptanmıştır. Bu sonuçlar, sporcuların presenteizm düzeyleri artış gösterdikçe çatışma yönetimlerinin de artığı anlamı taşıyabilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Spor, presenteizm, çatışma, yönetim
... Workaholism is unlike work engagement in which the enjoyment of working, not the compulsion to work, is a strong driving factor (Schaufeli et al., 2006;Shimazu et al., 2015).Typically, work engagement is misperceived with workaholism Mazzetti et al., 2014;Shimazu and Schaufeli, 2009), given that some researchers conceptualize them as polar endpoints of a continuum (i.e., positive and negative work commitment; Huml et al., 2020), whereas others (Kim, 2019) argue they both interact directly (i.e., might increase or reduce each other's influences). More probable, work engagement lies opposite burnout (i.e., happens when personal needs are unmet) on a distinct continuum (Maslach and Leiter, 1997;Shimazu and Schaufeli, 2009;van Beek et al., 2012). Spence and Robbins (1992) distinguished amongst six worker types who were characterized based on levels of work involvement, work drive, and work enjoyment. ...
Workaholism is often considered a conventional word in the general population to portray those individuals who continuously work and find it challenging not to work. It is usually described as a work addiction and operationalized as a compulsive need to work excessively hard. However, the concept of workaholism remains poorly understood. The first objective of this review is to define workaholism, followed by its related concepts, and how it is assessed. Notably, we distinguish workaholism from work addiction and work engagement. Next, we review the current research literature, largely from the last two decades, to suggest that workaholism contributes toward a wide range of health outcomes, ranging from sleep to stress. In particular, we focus on evidence suggesting that workaholism may be associated with differing risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and potentially other related metabolic abnormalities. Finally, we discuss potential limitations of the existing literature on workaholism, and we provide future directions for this emerging field. Specifically, we underscore the need to link workaholism with more biomarkers of metabolic diseases, such as those related to inflammation, the gut microbiome, and glucose homeostasis. In addition, we highlight the importance of establishing causality between workaholism and poor health outcomes, such as cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes.
... In contrast, those with lower levels of proactivity show less energy and motivation toward learning (Truxillo, McCune, Bertolino, & Fraccaroli, 2012). Engaged workaholics are highly self-absorbed in their work, are motivated by intrinsic and autonomous motivation, spend most of the time working, and are less likely to feel burnout compared to non-engaged workaholics (Van Beek, Taris, & Schaufeli, 2011). With their love for working along with a proactive personality, workaholics possess the capacity to discover and work on new ideas (Crant, 2000). ...
In this inquiry, we highlight that there is a silver lining to workaholism, relying on identity control theory as an explanatory framework. A parallel mediation model established that workaholism fosters employees' creativity but also triggers presenteeism through the mechanisms of thriving and flourishing. The model also shows that a proactive personality is a critical boundary condition that moderates the workaholism‐thriving and workaholism‐flourishing relationship. Two‐source multi‐wave temporally segregated data (n = 305) from the service sector in Islamabad (i.e., Pakistan) were used as a research design. Overall, this study contributes to the workaholism literature by unveiling two new pivotal mechanisms that depict a more balanced perspective to the dominant negative view of workaholics being obsessive‐compulsive addicts.
... However, they specified it is essential to address engaged studyholics to avoid their development into the disengaged type [1]. Based on the workaholism literature [32], in fact, they speculated that engaged studyholics are less impaired than disengaged studyholics. Moreover, they stated that it is crucial to consider overstudying as a pathological behavior only if it is associated with high functional impairment and low study engagement to avoid over-pathologizing studying, which is a common and usually positive behavior [33]. ...
In 2017, Loscalzo and Giannini introduced the new potential clinical condition of studyholism (or obsession toward study) and a comprehensive model including its possible antecedents and outcomes. Then, emphasizing the value of avoiding an aprioristic (addiction) framework in analyzing problematic overstudying, they suggested conducting research on this new construct to unveil its internalizing and/or externalizing nature while also avoiding the over-pathologizing of a common behavior such as studying. Seven years after the first publication about studyholism, growing evidence concerning its antecedents suggested that studyholism might be defined as an OCD-related disorder (or, more generally, as an internalizing disorder). Moreover, the research about its outcomes highlighted that it is a problem behavior deserving attention as it is associated with academic, psychological, physical, and social downsides. Therefore, this paper aims to review the scientific literature published concerning studyholism to illuminate if it might be conceptualized as an OCD-related disorder based on its symptomatology, antecedents, and impact on individuals’ academic, physical, and psychological functioning. Given that it is a new construct, it is of critical value to systematize the findings gathered until now as it can help scholars interested in students’ well-being to have a clear understanding concerning the importance of screening studyholism since childhood, as this will help favor academic success and well-being and reduce the risk for school dropout. Finally, this paper presents an agenda for future research on studyholism, and it highlights the importance of further analyzing problematic overstudying using different theoretical perspectives (such as the behavioral addiction conceptualization) to unveil its real nature.
