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Schematic representation of Brewster’s Law. The dots correspond to the electric vector perpendicular to the page, whereas the double-headed arrows represent the electric vector in the plane of the page. An unpolarized, or arbitrarily plane-polarized, incident ray (upper right quadrant), strikes a surface at an angle of incidence, θ B , corresponding to the Brewster’s angle, or the angle of polariza-
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![Fig. 1: Expansion of Figure 3 in “The Theory of Heat Radiation” [5]...](profile/Stephen-Crothers/publication/280042096/figure/fig1/AS:287093235437568@1445459769014/Expansion-of-Figure-3-in-The-Theory-of-Heat-Radiation-5-depicting-the-full-complement_Q320.jpg)
Affirming Kirchhoff’s Law of thermal emission, Max Planck conferred upon his own equation and its constants, h and k, universal significance. All arbitrary cavities were said to behave as blackbodies. They were thought to contain black, or normal radiation, which depended only upon temperature and frequency of observation, irrespective of the natur...
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... result was stunning. Max Planck had determined that the reflectivities of all arbitrary media were equal. Yet, he attempted to dismiss such a conclusion by stating relative to Eq. 20 [5, Eq. 40]: “ The first of these two relations, which states that holtz. ” Planck provided for the element of the bounding surface two separate coe ffi cients of reflection. These must, in fact, correspond to those of the media utilized. Planck has already stated in § 35 that “ . . . let all quantities referring to the second substance be indicated by the addition of an accent. ” Consequently, ρ and ρ ′ can only take meaning with respect to the media under consideration. Thus, how did Planck possi- bly reach the conclusion that these values must be equal? At the onset in Eq. 19 [5, § 35], Planck sought to force ρ ν = ρ ′ ν , in general, by first making ρ ν = ρ ′ ν = 0, in particular. To accomplish this feat, he considered rays that were, “ polarized at right angles to the plane of inci- gle of polarization ” [5, § 37]. Again, such rays could never exist in the context of heat radiation [23, p. 450]. The “plane of incidence” is that containing the unit normal vector from the surface of incidence and the direction of the incident ray. There are two natural ways by which the orientation of an electromagnetic wave can be fixed; by the electric vector E or the magnetic vector B . Contemporary convention is to use the electric vector E [24, § 1.4.2]. Planck used the erstwhile magnetic vector convention. The “angle of polarization” is Brewster’s angle [23, p. 450]. The angle between reflected and refracted rays resulting from a given incident ray is then 90 o . The reflected wave is entirely plane-polarized ∗ , as shown in Figure 3, Planck’s medium 2 has a Brewster’s angle complementary to the Brewster’s angle of his medium 1 ( θ B + θ ′ B = 90 o ). Brewster’s angle is defined in terms of a reflected and a refracted beam. Unpolarized light, and plane-polarized light that is not “ at right angles to the plane of incidence ”, produce reflected and refracted beams, in accordance with Brewster’s Law. Planck invoked Brewster’s Law [23, p. 450] with the special condition that incident rays are orthogonal to the plane of incidence. In this case, there could be no reflection, but only refraction, in accordance with Snell’s Law. He simulta- neously applied these same restricted conditions to medium 2. “ Now in the special case when the rays are ...
Context 2
... 1: Expansion of Figure 3 in “The Theory of Heat Radiation” [5] depicting the full complement of rays involved in treating the interaction between two media separated by a “bounding surface” which contained a hypothetical element of interest, d σ . Planck considered the reflective nature of d σ to ascertain whether its reflection coe ffi cients were identical depending on whether the incident ray originated from medium 1, (A), or medium 2, (B). A) Schematic representation of the incident specific intensity, K ν (plain arrow), at an angle θ , contained in the conical section, d Ω , of the first medium (upper right quadrant) which is reflected by the bounding surface into the conical section d Ω in the upper left quadrant and refracted into the conical section d Ω ′ of the second medium, at an angle θ ′ , in the lower left quadrant. Note that in order to preserve the proper specific intensities, K ν , in the upper left quadrant, Planck must sum the reflected portion of the incident specific intensity of medium 1, ρ ν K ν , with the refracted portion of the incident specific intensity of medium 2, (1 − α ′ ν − ρ ν ′ ) K ′ ν , depicted in B. This fact is represented by the feathered arrow. However, he neglected to include that part of the specific intensity in the upper left quadrant was being produced by emission in that direction, η ν , by d σ . B) Schematic representation of the incident specific intensity, K ′ ν (plain arrow), at an angle θ ′ ,contained in the conical section, d Ω ′ , of the second medium (lower right quadrant) which
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Citations
... In fact, the power equation at the surface remains unbalanced as the uncertainty in the net energy flux between the surface and the atmosphere is over 17 W m −2 [3]. To date, many static explanations for the global energy balance have been confined to using one set of fixed parameters to describe atmospheric absorption and radiation [2], whereas the taken-for-granted Kirchhoff's law at the core of the radiative transfer description of atmospheric absorption and radiation seems theoretically invalid [4]. ...
... So far, many attempts have been made at ab initio calculation of atmospheric radiation based on Schwarzschild's equation with the Planck function and an effective emissivity, but the results seem over-simplified. Besides, it has been revealed that Kirchhoff's law is problematic and should not be considered as a basic law [4]. ...
An analytical theory is proposed for the earth-atmosphere system at its equilibrium surface temperature, 289.16 K. A non-linear relation is formulated between atmospheric absorption and atmospheric radiation by modifying Kirchhoff's law on thermal radiation. For the first time, the Global Energy Balance can be realized in a wide range of atmospheric absorptivity, transmittance, and surface emissivity. It is revealed that atmospheric radiation becomes negative once the atmospheric absorptivity is below its threshold value. It is proven that the upward cumulative long-wave atmospheric radiation spontaneously increases from 3.8 W m −2 to 199.4 W m −2 as the long-wave atmospheric absorptivity increases from 0.4 to 1.0 whilst the long-wave atmospheric trans-mittance decreases from 0.6 to 0.1.
... Neutrosophic modifications of Kirchoff's law of "blackbody radiation", and Planck's "constant" would be very useful. (See for instance, a report by Robitaille and Crothers on the flaws of Kirchoff law, [2][3][4]). It is worth noting here, that from dynamical perspective, Shpenkov argues for a redefinition of Planck constant: "The Planck constant h is the quantity the value of which is equal to the orbital action of the electron on the Bohr first orbit in the hydrogen atom, namely to its orbital moment of momentum Porb multiplied by 2π, or it can be rewritten as: h=2π. ...
... Some examples are displayed by Robitaille and Crothers in some of their presentations on the original "black body" thermal radiation constant known as Kirchoff's law, which was never measured by instrumented experiments, and was accepted as universally valid by Planck, who never did experiments to measure the thermal radiation curves of anything. [2][3][4] ...
In Neutrosophic Logic, a basic assertion is that there are variations of about everything that we can measure; the variations surround three parameters called T,I,F (truth, indeterminacy, falsehood) which can take a range of values. Similarly, in this paper we consider NL applications in physics constants. Those constants actually all have a window of plus and minus values, relative to the average value of the constant. For example, the window for the speed of light is approximately: +3000 m/s > c < minus 3000 m/s. We also discuss some implications of this new perspective of physics constants, including in gravitation physics etc.
... The mass of the Yang-Mills gauge field is infinitesimal, and it is intermediated by SQ particles. Planck's constant is not a constant -experiments in this regard were performed in 2002 (Crothers & Robitaille, 2015). Distance is an absolute. ...
We extend foundational understandings regarding the physics of consciousness into a vastly more comprehensive and novel approach, regarding the inner workings of what is actually Sentient Reality. The subquantum approach to consciousness has been developed by the authors of this chapter, through a decade of research-team efforts, experiments and observations. The resulting subquantum-based peer-reviewed works are all rooted in empirical, reproducibly observable, actual facts - rather than unsupported assumptions, beliefs, or speculative fantasies, or imaginings, or theories (See: Boyd, http://worlds-within-worlds.org/publications-and-research.php, for example).
We are exploring together the unexplored frontiers of the subquantum constituents of Reality, which obviously exert a "pre-energetic" (pre-field) function at their upper level of complexity (the Quantum), thus originating and controlling all of physical reality as we know it, including the Brain, which is one of the most complex physical-energetic objects known to man.
... The CMB is inextricably intertwined with Big Bang cosmology and its expansion of the Universe, from General Relativity. The reasons why the CMB does not exist are simply stated [9]: ...
Saadeh et al recently reported in Phys. Rev. Lett. [1] that " anisotropic expansion of the Universe is strongly disfavoured , with odds of 121,000:1 against " , using CMB temperature and polarisation data from the WMAP and Planck satellites. However, it is impossible to determine anything about expansion of the Universe from the WMAP and Planck datasets for a number of reasons.
... 1. Kirchhoff's Law of Thermal Emission is false [90]. ...
... Planck's theoretical proof of Kirchhiff's Law of Thermal Emission is false, owing to violations of the physics of optics and thermal emission [90]. Einstein's derivation of Planck's equation is valid only for black materials because he invoked a Wein's field; a characteristic of black materials such as soot [90]. ...
... Planck's theoretical proof of Kirchhiff's Law of Thermal Emission is false, owing to violations of the physics of optics and thermal emission [90]. Einstein's derivation of Planck's equation is valid only for black materials because he invoked a Wein's field; a characteristic of black materials such as soot [90]. Only black materials such as soot emit a blackbody spectrum. ...
The LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration have announced [1] that on the 14th of September 2015, at 09:50:45 UTC, they detected a transient Einstein gravitational wave, designated GW150914, produced by two merging black holes forming a single black hole. Not so long ago similar media excitement surrounded the announcement by the BICEP2 Team of detection of primordial gravitational waves imprinted in B-mode polarisations of a Cosmic Microwave Background, which proved to be naught. The two black holes that merged are reported to have been at a distance of some 1.3 billion light years from Earth, of �29 solar masses and �36 solar masses respectively, the newly formed black hole at �62 solar masses, radiating away �3 solar masses as Einstein gravitational waves. The insurmountable problem for the credibility of the LIGO-Virgo Collaboration claims is the falsity of the theoretical assumptions upon which they are based.
... The proclivity of the Human Condition to readily embrace such irrational notions is well documented by anthropologists [25]. The intellectual decrepitude of modern physics and astronomy is clear indication that they are diseased and dying sciences [26]. ...
A number of methods have been employed by cosmologists to effect what they call an 'extension' of their 'Schwarzschild solution', to remove the singularity at their 'Schwarzschild radius' r s = 2Gm/c^2; the latter they maintain is the radius of the 'event horizon' of a black hole. They call the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius a coordinate singularity. The method of extension most often employed by cosmologists is the Kruskal-Szekeres extension, but sometimes the Painlevé-Gullstrand extension is used. The quantity r appearing in all these metrics is invariably treated by cosmologists as the radial distance, most evident in their 'Schwarzschild radius'. Intuitively, radial distance is ≥ 0 and so, on their false assumption that r is the radial distance in the 'Schwarzschild solution', the cosmologists seek to drive it down to zero where they say there is a physical singularity. Although cosmologists have devised mathematical-like methods to seemingly do this, to produce their black hole, all their methods violate the rules of pure mathematics and so they are inadmissible. Consequently, the Painlevé-Gullstrand 'extension' is invalid. Moreover, since material sources cannot be both present in and absent from Einstein's field equations by the very same mathematical constraint, the whole theory of black holes is fallacious.
... Recently, considerable doubt has been raised [2][3][4] relative to Kirchhoff's formulation of his law of thermal emission [1]. In this regard, the equivalence between emitted and absorbed radiation under conditions of thermal equilibrium, properly known as Stewart's law [5], has not been questioned. ...
... In this regard, the equivalence between emitted and absorbed radiation under conditions of thermal equilibrium, properly known as Stewart's law [5], has not been questioned. However, the German scientist's claim that the radiation within an arbitrary cavity will always be independent of the nature of the walls, while subject only to the temperature and the frequency of observation, has never been demonstrated experimentally and is unsupported by mathematical derivation [2][3][4]. Regrettably, even the proof of Kirchhoff's law of thermal emission, as advanced by Max Planck, has been found to be physically unsound [2]. * As such, beyond the restatement of Stewart's law [5], it would appear that little can be preserved from Kirchhoff's classic paper [1]. ...
... However, the German scientist's claim that the radiation within an arbitrary cavity will always be independent of the nature of the walls, while subject only to the temperature and the frequency of observation, has never been demonstrated experimentally and is unsupported by mathematical derivation [2][3][4]. Regrettably, even the proof of Kirchhoff's law of thermal emission, as advanced by Max Planck, has been found to be physically unsound [2]. * As such, beyond the restatement of Stewart's law [5], it would appear that little can be preserved from Kirchhoff's classic paper [1]. ...
In order to account for the slight polarization of the continuum towards the limb, proponents of the Standard Solar Model (SSM) must have recourse to electron or hydrogen-based scattering of light, as no other mechanism is possible in a gaseous Sun. Conversely, acceptance that the solar body is comprised of condensed matter opens up new avenues in the analysis of this problem, even if the photospheric surface itself is viewed as incapable of emitting polarized light. Thus, the increased disk polarization, from the center to the limb, can be explained by invoking the scattering of light by the atmosphere above the photosphere. The former is reminiscent of mechanisms which are known to account for the polarization of sunlight in the atmosphere of the Earth. Within the context of the Liquid Metallic Hydrogen Solar Model (LMHSM), molecules and small particles, not electrons or hydrogen atoms as required by the SSM, would primarily act as scattering agents in regions also partially comprised of condensed hydrogen structures (CHS). In addition, the well-known polarization which characterizes the K-corona would become a sign of emission polarization from an anisotropic source, without the need for scattering. In the LMHSM, the K, F, and T-coronas can be viewed as emissive and reflective manifestations of a single coronal entity adopting a radially anisotropic structure, while slowly cooling with altitude above the photosphere. The presence of "dust particles", advanced by proponents of the SSM, would no longer be required to explain the F and T-corona, as a single cooling structure would account for the properties of the K, F, and T coronas. At the same time, the polarized "SecondSolar Spectrum", characterized by the dominance of certain elemental or ionic spectral lines and an abundance of molecular lines, could be explained in the LMHSM, by first invoking interface polarization and coordination of these species with condensed matter in the chromosphere. The prevalence of polarized signals from the Rare Earth metals, achemically unique group of the periodic table, provides powerful evidence, based on the "Second Solar Spectrum", that chemical reactions and coordination are taking place in the atmosphere of the Sun. This concept is also supported by the polarized signal from lithium, an element previously hypothesized to assist in stabilizing metallic hydrogen structures. The possibility that some atoms are coordinated with CHS implies that the relative abundance of elements cannot be simply ascertained through the analysis of emission or absorption lines in the solar atmosphere.
... [4] However, if a neutrosophic axiom is partially dependent from other neutrosophic axioms, by removing it the neutrosophic axiomatic system is affected. [5] While, again, in classical mathematics an axiomatic system has to be complete (meaning that each statement or its negation is derivable), a neutrosophic axiomatic system is partially complete and partially incomplete. It is partially incomplete because one can add extra partially independent neutrosophic axioms. ...
... We do not have perfect spaces and perfect systems in reality. Therefore, many physical laws function approximatively (see [5]). The physical constants are not universal too; variations of their values depend from a space to another, from a system to another. ...
In this paper, we introduce for the first time the notions of Neutrosophic Axiom, Neutrosophic Axiomatic System, Neutrosophic Deducibility and Neutrosophic Inference, Neutrosophic Proof, Neutrosophic Tautologies, Neutrosophic Quantifiers, Neutrosophic Propositional Logic, Neutrosophic Axiomatic Space, Degree of Contradiction (Dissimilarity) of Two Neutrosophic Axioms, and Neutrosophic Model. A class of neutrosophic implications is also introduced. A comparison between these innovatory neutrosophic notions and their corresponding classical notions is made. Then, three concrete examples of neutrosophic axiomatic systems, describing the same neutrosophic geometrical model, are presented at the end of the paper.
... [4] However, if a neutrosophic axiom is partially dependent from other neutrosophic axioms, by removing it the neutrosophic axiomatic system is affected. [5] While, again, in classical mathematics an axiomatic system has to be complete (meaning that each statement or its negation is derivable), a neutrosophic axiomatic system is partially complete and partially incomplete. It is partially incomplete because one can add extra partially independent neutrosophic axioms. ...
... We do not have perfect spaces and perfect systems in reality. Therefore, many physical laws function approximatively (see [5]). The physical constants are not universal too; variations of their values depend from a space to another, from a system to another. ...
In this paper, we introduce for the first time the notions Model. A class of neutrosophic implications is also introduced. A comparison between these innovatory neutrosophic notions and their corresponding classical notions is made. Then, three concrete examples of neutrosophic axiomatic systems, describing the same neutrosophic geometrical model, are presented at the end of the paper.
In our approach we have combined knowledge of Old Masters (working in this field before the year 1905), New Masters (working in this field after the year 1905) and Dissidents under the guidance of Louis de Broglie and David Bohm. Based on the great works of Wilhelm Wien and Max Planck we have presented a new look on the “Wien Peaks” and the Planck Distribution Function and proposed the “core-shell” model of the photon. There are known many “Wien Peaks” defined for different contexts. We have introduced a thermodynamic approach to define the Wien Photopic Peak at the wavelength λ = 555 nm and the Wien Scotopic Peak at the wavelength λ = 501 nm to document why Nature excellently optimized the human vision at those wavelengths. There could be discovered many more the so-called Wien Thermodynamic Peaks for other physical and chemical processes. We have attempted to describe the so-called Planck oscillators as coupled oscillations of geons and dyons. We have decomposed the Planck distribution function in two parts. Inspired by the Bohm Diffusion and the Bohm Sheath Criterion we have defined the plasma coupling constant that couple oscillations of geons and photons. The difference of the Planck least action of photons and the least action of geons might define the Barrier of Determinacy that create a limit for the resolution in the Microworld. We have newly formulated the Hubble cooling constant and inserted it into the Newton-Zwicky Cooling Law of photons for the description of the cooling of old photons. This proposed view on Planck´s Oscillators might open a new way for the description of “Heat” and “Light” processes.
