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Schematic illustration of relative finger lengths and possible association with typical physical features. Physical char- acteristics that develop in distinctly masculine and feminine ways are mostly caused by sex hormones . High prenatal testos- terone exposure leads to masculine 2D/4D digit ratio (lower than 1). Female undergo less androgenisation that results in 2D/4D digit ratio higher than 1. Finger lengths are associated with some cognitive abilities and also with risk for disease development.
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Testosterone is a steroid sex hormone with an important role in the physiology in both sexes. It is involved in the development of morphological and functional parameters of the body via multiple molecular mechanisms. Intensive research focused on testosterone reveals associations with cognitive abilities and behavior and its causative role in sex...
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... androgen exposure caused significantly lower 2D/4D when compared to healthy controls (Brown et al. 2002). Animal studies on bird eggs confirmed the prenatal androgen effect on 2D/4D (Romano et al. 2005). The 2D/4D digit ratio was found to be associated with many physiological, behavioral and cognitive parameters that are sexually dimorphic and influenced by hormonal activity, even the sexual orientation ( Fig. 6). Homosexuals of both sexes have a lower 2D/4D ratio when compared to heterosexuals suggesting higher androgen levels prenatally (van Goozen et al. 2002, Rahman and Wilson 2003). Finger ratio was measured in association with reproductive success in healthy men and women. For men, there is a negative association between low 2D/4D and higher number of children or sperm counts. Women display positive relationship between higher 2D/4D and fertility (Manning and Fink 2008). Very high feminine 2D/4D can be a risk factor for breast cancer (Belcher et al. 2009, Devine et al. 2010). On the other hand, atypically low digit ratio is believed to be associated with autism spectrum disor- ders (Bloom et al. 2010, Krajmer et al. 2011). It is sug- gested that prenatal testosterone levels promote devel- opment and maintenance of traits useful in male fight- ing sports related to aggressiveness. Digit ratio 2D/4D is negatively associated with sport success in men (Manning and Taylor 2001). Low 2D/4D is also related to higher sport abilities in females (Paul et al. 2006). In studies focused on digit ratio in relation to spatial orientation, many contradictions were found. Women exposed to higher prenatal androgen levels have lower 2D/4D (man-like) and perform better in spatial test and numerical tasks than women with a higher digit ratio (woman-like) (Kempel et al. 2005). In contrast, in males improvement in spatial ability occurred after a decrease in circulating testosterone levels. In the nor- mal range of testosterone levels, feminine 2D/4D in males is linked with best results in visual spatial tasks (Sanders et al. 2002). A recent study investigating implications for the relationship between prenatal tes- tosterone and academia shows social scientists of both sexes have a ratio consistent with the male norm (0.98) whilst scientists have a digit ratio consistent with the female norm (1.00). Both of these findings propose that the relationship between the 2D:4D ratio and visuo- spatial ability may reveal a U-shaped curve or other non-linear relationship (Brosnan 2006). They provoke also some speculations that 2D/4D can be related to spatial preferences rather than ability per se (Valla and Ceci 2011). Despite the 2D/4D is consider to be a rele- vant indicator of prenatal hormonal profile, recent studies brought inconsistent or controversial results that are difficult to interpret (Forstmeier et al. 2010, Medland et al. 2010, Valla and Ceci 2011). In some studies low 2D/4D on the right hand and high 2D/4D on the left hand are used as predictors of higher prena- tal androgen levels. Data from the right hand ...
Citations
... The 2D:4D digit ratio is a dimorphic marker and equals 0.98 for men, and 1.00 for women. [19][20][21] A lower digit ratio corresponds to high prenatal testosterone levels and low prenatal estrogen levels, whereas a higher digit ratio is associated with low prenatal testosterone levels and high prenatal estrogen levels. 22 The digit ratio was used as a biomarker for prenatal testosterone and prenatal estrogen levels during early prenatal development. ...
Background
The hormonal composition of amniotic fluid during prenatal development, particularly the androgen-to-estrogen ratio, may influence neuronal differentiation related to sexual response patterns and the capacity to control impulsive sexual behaviors in later life.
Aim
This study aims to assess sexual behaviors and characterize sexual responses in women with borderline personality disorder (BPD) compared to a control group.
Methods
The study included 33 women diagnosed with BPD and 56 women in a control group. BPD diagnoses were based on clinical psychiatric evaluation and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Elements of sexual response were measured using the Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (ASEX). The digit ratio (2D:4D) served as a biomarker for testosterone and estrogen exposure during early prenatal development.
Main outcomes
ASEX results were analyzed in the categories of “desire,” “arousal,” and “vaginal lubrication” subscales, along with the 2D:4D digit ratio for both hands.
Results
Lower values for the right–hand digit ratio were observed in the BPD group compared to the control group (0.989, SD = 0.034 vs. 1.016, SD = 0.039; P = 0.0014), potentially indicating higher prenatal testosterone levels. Significant correlations were found in the BPD group between the right–hand digit ratio and scores on the ASEX subscales, specifically “sexual arousal” (r = 0.406, P = 0.019) and “vaginal lubrication” (r = 0.362, P = 0.038).
Clinical implications
These results may support biological hypotheses regarding the origins of sexual dysfunction in women with BPD.
Strengths and limitations
This study is a pioneering attempt to explore the indirect impact of early amniotic hormone composition on the neurobiological conditioning of sexual response and behavior in women with BPD. Limitations include the preliminary nature of the findings, a small sample size, and results that may not be generalizable across all genders.
Conclusions
Physiological aspects of sexual response, such as arousal and vaginal lubrication, in women with BPD appear to be significantly correlated with prenatal testosterone levels, as indicated by the 2D:4D digit ratio.
... In men, the main production of testosterone is localized to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of Leydig cells in the testicles. Half of the testosterone amount in females is generated by the ovaries; the rest by the cortex of suprarenal glands [58]. Sex hormones exert variable influence on personality and also on behavior during romantic attachment. ...
Love as a complex interplay of emotions and behaviors is underpinned by an intricate network of neurobiological mechanisms. This review provides insight into the molecular basis of love, focusing on the role of key hormones and neuromodulators. The aim of the paper is to report how these biochemical messengers influence various aspects of love, including attraction, attachment, and long-term bonding. By examining the effects of hormones such as dopamine, oxytocin, vasopressin, and serotonin, we aim to elucidate the intricate relationship between biology and behavior. Additionally, the potential impact of modern lifestyle factors on hormonal balance and their subsequent influence on love and social interactions are outlined. This review provides a useful overview of the molecular underpinnings of love, offering insights into the biological mechanisms that shape human relationships.
... Ці гормони пригнічують атрофію та нейродегенерацію, викликану гормонами стресу в різних частинах мозку [26], і індукують пластичність нейронів і синаптичне ремоделювання. Крім того, тестостерон покращує настрій і поведінку, а також покращує когнітивні навички [27]. Вплив стресу знижує регуляцію рецепторів тестостерону та естрадіолу в гіпокампі. ...
Посттравматичний стресовий розлад (ПТСР) вражає приблизно 8% загального населення. Поширеність ПТСР вдвічі вища серед військовослужбовців і ветеранів бойових дій. ПТСР пов’язаний із безліччю соціальних або особистих проблем зі здоров’ям. Хоча розвиток цього захворювання внаслідок труднощів у стосунках у більш широкому сенсі вже досліджувався, менше відомо про зв’язок між ПТСР і сексуальними дисфункціями. Метою дослідження було визначення основних закономірностей між об’ємом ранового ушкодження (з одного боку) та змінами рівнів деяких гормонів у сироватці крові на різних етапах ранової хвороби (з іншого боку) з урахуванням того, що ці зміни – є важливими складовими загальних процесів, які обумовлюють перебіг ранового процесу. Матеріали та методи. У досліджені брали участь 30 чоловіків, які отримали поранення м’яких тканин різного об’єму ураження. Вік поранених — 34,2 ± 4,3 роки. Середня маса тіла становила 78 ± 3,5 кг. Визначались рівні соматотропного гормону (СТГ) та тестостерону. Результати. Під час дослідження було зареєстровано вірогідне (р<0,05) зростання СТГ в групі пацієнтів із пораненнями легкого ступеня вже з першої доби після поранення. Такі високі рівні СТГ у чоловіків комбатантів спостерігалися впродовж всього дослідження. У групі пацієнтів з пораненням середнього ступеня важкості ми спостерігали вірогідне (р<0,05) збільшення рівня СТГ, яке розпочиналось з першої доби та трималось на високому рівні до 5 доби після поранення. Але вже через два тижні, концентрація гормону росту знизилась майже до рівня контрольних показників. В групі важких поранених ми реєстрували значну відмінність у показниках в залежності від доби поранення. Динаміка рівнів тестостерону, яка була отримана в дослідженні, повністю відповідає даним літератури відносно того, що тяжке пошкодження практично завжди супроводжується пригніченням функції статевих залоз, що проявляється зниженням продукції тестостерону, який посилює анаболічні процеси. У нашому дослідженні звертає на себе увагу доволі низький рівень тестостерону у всіх молодих чоловіків із пораненнями середнього та важкого ступеню. При цьому слід зауважити, що рівень тестостерону у чоловіків з легкими пораненнями не відрізнявся від контрольної групи. Висновки. По-перше, встановлена залежність рівнів соматотропного гормону та тестостерону від важкості поранення у чоловіків комбатантів. По-друге, підтверджено роль тестостерону й соматотропного гормону в розвитку посттравматичного стресового розладу та сексуальної дисфункції у чоловіків – учасників бойових дій. Ключові слова: посттравматичний стресовий розлад, рани, ушкодження тіла, війна, соматотропний гормон, тестостерон, чоловіки.
... Spermatogenesis requires an appropriate balance between testicular testosterone and estradiol [26]. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells, which are involved in testicular steroidogenesis, and is converted to estradiol by cytochrome P450 aromatase [52]. Estradiol is involved in male sexual differentiation and spermatogenesis, and affects sperm motility, receptivity, and survival [26]. ...
... Estradiol is involved in male sexual differentiation and spermatogenesis, and affects sperm motility, receptivity, and survival [26]. Aromatase is expressed in Leydig cells, Sertoli cells, and germ cells of the mammalian testis, and Leydig cells have been considered the major source of estradiol [52]. Therefore, regulation of aromatase expression in Leydig cells is essential for regulating the endocrine environment between the testes. ...
... In order to understand the possible impact of decreased testosterone levels on the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, it is necessary to look at the metabolism of testosterone. Testosterone is metabolized by two major enzyme aromatases and 5α-reductase (Figure 1) [52]. Aromatases are expressed in bone, breast, brain, and adipose tissue as well as male gonads and catalyze the binding of testosterone to estradiol [52]. ...
Heat stress due to climate warming can significantly affect the synthesis of sex hormones in male adolescents, which can impair the ability of the hypothalamus to secrete gonadotropin-releasing hormone on the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, which leads to a decrease in luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which ultimately negatively affects spermatogenesis and testosterone synthesis. For optimal spermatogenesis, the testicular temperature should be 2–6 °C lower than body temperature. Heat stress directly affects the testes, damaging them and reducing testosterone synthesis. Additionally, chronic heat stress abnormally increases the level of aromatase in Leydig cells, which increases estradiol synthesis while decreasing testosterone, leading to an imbalance of sex hormones and spermatogenesis failure. Low levels of testosterone in male adolescents lead to delayed puberty and incomplete sexual maturation, negatively affect height growth and bone mineral density, and can lead to a decrease in lean body mass and an increase in fat mass. In order for male adolescents to acquire healthy reproductive capacity, it is recommended to provide sufficient nutrition and energy, avoid exposure to heat stress, and provide foods and supplements to prevent or repair testosterone reduction, germ cell damage, and sperm count reduction caused by heat stress so that they can enter a healthy adulthood.
... Spermatogenesis requires an appropriate balance between testicular testosterone and estradiol [24]. Testosterone is produced by Leydig cells, which are involved in testicular steroidogenesis, and is converted to estradiol by cytochrome P450 aromatase [46]. Estradiol is involved in male sexual differentiation and spermatogenesis, and affects sperm motility, receptivity, and survival [24]. ...
... Estradiol is involved in male sexual differentiation and spermatogenesis, and affects sperm motility, receptivity, and survival [24]. Aromatase is expressed in Leydig cells, Sertoli cells, and germ cells of the mammalian testis, and Leydig cells have been considered the major source of estradiol [46]. Therefore, regulation of aromatase expression in Leydig cells is essential for regulating the endocrine environment between the testes. ...
... In order to understand the possible impact of decreased testosterone levels on the development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, it is necessary to look at the metabolism of testosterone. Testosterone is metabolized by two major enzyme aromatases and 5α-reductase ( Figure 1) [46]. Aromatases are expressed in bone, breast, brain, and adipose tissue as well as male gonads and catalyze the binding of testosterone to estradiol [46]. ...
Heat stress due to climate warming can significantly affect the synthesis of sex hormones in male adolescents, which can impair the ability of the hypothalamus to secrete gonadotropin-releasing hormone on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which leads to a decrease in luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which ultimately negatively affects spermatogenesis and testosterone synthesis. For optimal spermatogenesis, the testicular temperature should be 2–6°C lower than body temperature. Heat stress directly affects the testes, damaging them and re-ducing testosterone synthesis. Additionally, chronic heat stress abnormally increases the level of aromatase in Leydig cells, which increases estradiol synthesis while decreasing testosterone, lead-ing to an imbalance of sex hormones and spermatogenesis failure. Low levels of testosterone in male adolescents lead to delayed puberty and incomplete sexual maturation, negatively affect height growth and bone mineral density, and can lead to a decrease in lean body mass and an in-crease in fat mass. In order for male adolescents to acquire healthy reproductive capacity, it is recommended to provide sufficient nutrition and energy, avoid exposure to heat stress, and pro-vide foods and supplements to prevent or repair testosterone reduction, germ cell damage, and sperm count reduction caused by heat stress so that they can enter a healthy adulthood.
... Injuries can disrupt not only an athlete's training and competition schedules but also their intimate relationships and sexual health. This disruption can have far-reaching effects on their psychological state, recovery process, and overall quality of life [1,2]. ...
Sexual health is a critical aspect of overall well-being, encompassing physical, mental, and emotional dimensions. For athletes, maintaining sexual health during injury rehabilitation can be particularly challenging. Injuries disrupt training, competition schedules, intimate relationships, and sexual health, impacting the psychological state, the recovery process, and overall quality of life. Athletes are highly attuned to their bodies, and any injury impeding physical performance can lead to significant stress and anxiety, affecting sexual health. Conversely, sexual activity and intimate relationships can influence the rehabilitation process both positively and negatively. Understanding this interplay is essential for holistic rehabilitation programs addressing all aspects of an athlete's well-being. Physiologically, sexual activity involves physical exertion, hormonal changes, and alterations in blood flow, impacting healing. Hormones released during sexual activity, such as oxytocin, endorphins, and dopamine, can provide pain relief and enhance mood, benefiting recovery. Testosterone, crucial for muscle repair and growth, is also influenced by sexual activity. However, physical exertion during sexual activity can strain injured areas, potentially exacerbating injuries if not managed carefully. Psychologically, injuries can impact an athlete’s self-esteem, body image, and mental health. Positive sexual relations offer emotional support, enhancing psychological resilience during recovery. Intimate relationships provide normalcy and help athletes maintain a positive body image, counteracting the negative psychological effects of injuries. Social support from intimate partners is vital for rehabilitation. Open communication about physical limitations and sexual needs can strengthen relationships and create a supportive environment for recovery. Comprehensive rehabilitation programs should address sexual health, providing education on safe practices, offering counseling services, and encouraging open dialogue between athletes, partners, and healthcare providers. Rehabilitation programs can enhance recovery and improve outcomes for injured athletes by integrating physiological, psychological, and social aspects.
... Androgens are key regulators of male sexual differentiation and the development of normal male phenotypes. Testosterone, the major human androgen, plays a dominant role in sexual dimorphism (3). Genetic and environmental effects modulate the gene expression of steroid-metabolising enzymes in the steroidogenic cascade, consistent with the expression regulation of the corresponding receptors, implying a complex mechanism of androgen action. ...
Background
Accumulating evidence suggests that the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) population exhibits altered hormone levels, including androgens. However, studies on the regulation of androgens, such as testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), in relation to sex differences in individuals with ASD are limited and inconsistent. We conducted the systematic review with meta-analysis to quantitatively summarise the blood, urine, or saliva androgen data between individuals with ASD and controls.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted for eligible studies published before 16 January 2023 in six international and two Chinese databases. We computed summary statistics with a random-effects model. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots and heterogeneity using I² statistics. Subgroup analysis was performed by age, sex, sample source, and measurement method to explain the heterogeneity.
Results
17 case-control studies (individuals with ASD, 825; controls, 669) were assessed. Androgen levels were significantly higher in individuals with ASD than that in controls (SMD: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.06–0.48, P=0.01). Subgroup analysis showed significantly elevated levels of urinary total testosterone, urinary DHEA, and free testosterone in individuals with ASD. DHEA level was also significantly elevated in males with ASD.
Conclusion
Androgen levels, especially free testosterone, may be elevated in individuals with ASD and DHEA levels may be specifically elevated in males.
... In addition, hyperandrogenemia stands as one of the diagnostic criteria for PCOS and impacts 60-80% of patients [15]. Female are actually more sensitive to testosterone even though it is known as a male hormone [16]. Growing evidences showed that testosterone may play an important role between the serum VD level and the risk of PCOS. ...
Background
Recent studies have revealed the correlation between serum vitamin D (VD) level and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), but the causality and specific mechanisms remain uncertain.
Objective
We aimed to investigate the cause-effect relationship between serum VD and PCOS, and the role of testosterone in the related pathological mechanisms.
Methods
We assessed the causality between serum VD and PCOS by using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) data in a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization (TS-MR) analysis. Subsequently, a MR mediation analysis was conducted to examine the mediating action of testosterone in the causality between serum VD and PCOS. Ultimately, we integrated GWAS data with cis-expression quantitative loci (cis-eQTLs) data for gene annotation, and used the potentially related genes for functional enrichment analysis to assess the involvement of testosterone and the potential mechanisms.
Results
TS-MR analysis showed that individuals with lower level of serum VD were more likely to develop PCOS (OR = 0.750, 95% CI: 0.587–0.959, P = 0.022). MR mediation analysis uncovered indirect causal effect of serum VD level on the risk of PCOS via testosterone (OR = 0.983, 95% CI: 0.968–0.998, P = 0.025). Functional enrichment analysis showed that several pathways may be involved in the VD-testosterone-PCOS axis, such as steroid hormone biosynthesis and autophagy process.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest that genetically predicted lower serum VD level may cause a higher risk of developing PCOS, which may be mediated by increased testosterone production.
... Testosterone belongs to the group of steroid hormones which is produced in the gonads and adrenal cortex. The serum level of testosterone is ten times higher in male compared to female patients, however, females are more sensitive to testosterone serum level imbalance [17]. This hormone regulates the function of cells by binding to the nuclear androgen receptors, a high density of which occurs in sebaceous glands [18]. ...
Introduction
Acne vulgaris is one of the most common dermatological diseases. Hormonal imbalance affects the skin condition and results in the formation of acne vulgaris lesions.
Aim
To evaluate serum levels of testosterone, prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), triglycerides (TG), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in patients with acne vulgaris and compare them to healthy population.
Material and methods
Forty-one patients with acne vulgaris and 47 age- and body mass index (BMI)-matched controls were enrolled in the study.
Results
The mean ± SD testosterone serum level in the study group was 0.45 ±1.03 ng/ml in females and 4.24 ±0.68 in males and in the control group 0.73 ±2.03 ng/ml and 5.3 ±1.3 ng/ml in females and males, respectively. The prolactin serum level was 16.73 ±8.02 ng/ml in the study group and in the control group 13.74 ±8.71 ng/ml (p = 0.011). The FSH serum level was 12.17 ±16.93 mIU/ml and 6.2 ±7.3 mIU/ml in the study and control groups, respectively (p = 0.0001), whereas LH serum levels were 18.44 ±19.71 mIU/ml and 11.26 ±8 mIU/ml, respectively (p = 0.2659). The HDL serum level was 65.63 ±15.67 mg/dl in the study group and 61.53 ±15.89 mg/dl in the control group (p = 0.219), and TG levels were 175.29 ±82.15 mg/dl and 87.32 ±30.64 mg/dl, respectively (p < 0.00001).
Conclusions
Our study demonstrates, that hormonal and lipid imbalance could be linked to acne vulgaris formation. Evaluation of hormonal and lipid abnormalities could help in treatment decisions and could affect the occurrence of complications and the course of acne.
... Hypogonadism can be confirmed if the patient has symptoms of hypogonadism, a family history of symptoms of hypogonadism, decreased testosterone levels, or if the patient has had an infection, trauma, or medical therapy related to hormonal changes. 7 Hypogonadism is classified into 2, namely primary and secondary. Primary hypogonadism is usually caused by genetic disorders (such as Klinefelter syndrome, X chromosome abnormalities, Sertoli-cell only syndrome), infections such as orchitis, or testicular trauma and other abnormalities of the testicles. ...
Infertility is a failure to get pregnant after one year of sexual intercourse without using contraception. The causes of infertility, especially in men, are very complex, including the aging process, hormonal disorders, lifestyle, environment, metabolic disease, and genetic problems. One of the most difficult causes in male infertility is genetic problems. In this case, a 35 year old man was reported with primary infertility and often experienced premature ejaculation and even anejaculation. Previously, the patient had repeatedly consulted about his condition at other fertility service centers. The conclusion obtained was that the patient had azoospermia with bilateral varicoceles and had been given hormone therapy but had not yet found a final diagnosis so the patient was still confused about what had happened to him. At the first visit the patient underwent a sperm analysis and the results were azoospermia. Then, based on the results of the history and physical examination, which indicated hypogonadism, a Y chromosome microdeletion examination was carried out, and a deletion was found in the AZFc region, which is a marker of infertility that causes spermatogenic failure. The examination was continued with karyotyping, the result was 47.XXY, consistent with the condition of Klinefelter syndrome. Conclusion: Carry out a karyotyping examination if you find signs and symptoms that suggest primary hypogonadism in male infertility. This can be done to streamline the diagnostic approach time in patients with primary hypogonadism, especially those with infertility.
