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Schematic description of the Bourban trunk muscle strength test (a: the ventral trunk muscle chain test, b: the lateral trunk muscle chain test, c: the dorsal trunk muscle chain test).
Source publication
Background:
It has been demonstrated that core strength training is an effective means to enhance trunk muscle strength (TMS) and proxies of physical fitness in youth. Of note, cross-sectional studies revealed that the inclusion of unstable elements in core strengthening exercises produced increases in trunk muscle activity and thus provide potenti...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... permission was given by the ethics committee of the University of Potsdam (submission No. 26/2014) and all experiments were conducted accord- ing to the latest version of the declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from the participant for publication of Figure 2a-c. A copy of the written consent is available for review by the Editor of this journal. ...
Context 2
... were applied in randomized order with a 10 min rest between the tests. During the ventral trunk muscle chain test, subjects were in prone bridge position on their elbows and toes (Figure 2a). Legs were extended, elbows shoulder-widths apart, and forearms lay flat on a fitness mat. ...
Context 3
... to recommendations regarding absolute reliability [18], the ventral test can be classified as reliable with a coefficient of variation of 14.1% [19]. During the lateral trunk muscle chain test, subjects were in a side bridge position with legs extended, the upper foot placed on top of the lower foot, and the supporting shoulder superior to the respective elbow ( Figure 2b). The supporting forearm was placed flat on the fitness mat and the uninvolved arm was held akimbo. ...
Context 4
... to recommendations regarding absolute reliability [18], the lateral test can be classified as reliable with a coefficient of variation (CoV) of 14.6% [19]. During the dorsal trunk muscle chain test, subjects lay prone on a wooden box while maintaining an unsupported trunk (from the upper border of the iliac crest) (Figure 2c). Participants held their arms across the chest, hands rested on the shoulders, legs were extended, and the feet were firmly fixed in wall bars. ...
Citations
... Our findings regarding balance ability correspond with previous studies that demonstrated improved postural control following core training interventions. Granacher (2014) [51] reported enhanced balance in adolescents after a 6-week program, while Park (2016) observed similar improvements in archery athletes following a 12-week intervention. At the 9-week mid-test, balance ability improved significantly relative to baseline levels. ...
... Our findings regarding balance ability correspond with previous studies that demonstrated improved postural control following core training interventions. Granacher (2014) [51] reported enhanced balance in adolescents after a 6-week program, while Park (2016) observed similar improvements in archery athletes following a 12-week intervention. At the 9-week mid-test, balance ability improved significantly relative to baseline levels. ...
Objective
This study aimed to analyze the effects of 12-week periodized core training on the physical fitness of college table tennis players.
Methods
A randomized controlled experimental design was employed, and 18 college table tennis players (male = 11, female = 7) were randomly assigned to the core training group (CT, n = 9) and the control group (CON, n = 9). The core training group performed periodized core training for 12 weeks. All variables were assessed at three time points: pre-test, mid-test (after 9 weeks), and post-test.
Results
Significant interactions were found between time and group for muscle endurance, balance, and agility, as demonstrated in Left Side Bridge (p < 0.05), Right Side Bridge (p < 0.001), Plank (p < 0.01), and Edgren Side Step (p < 0.001). However, no significant interactions were observed for speed, muscle strength, or power.
Conclusion
Periodized core training has a positive effect on the muscle endurance, agility, and balance of college table tennis players. The improvement in agility may be attributed to the integration of sport-specific periodized training. Further research is required to examine its effects on speed and anaerobic capacity. Periodized core training appears to have limited effects on strength and power, suggesting it can be used as a supplementary element within a comprehensive training program to enhance physical fitness and performance among college table tennis players.
... 3.1 Unstable plane resistance training Unstable plane resistance training is a process that promotes the restoration of postural stability, which is defined as follows: when the body posture swings, the center of mass goes beyond the equipment support area or the reaction force changes the position of the center of pressure due to surface distortion (e.g., low-density foam pads, sand) [41]. Unlike traditional strength training, unstable plane resistance training focuses on both postural and core stability development [42][43][44]. Its main feature is the significant activation of stabilizing muscles. ...
BACKGROUND: The effects of resistance training on brain structure and cognitive functioninolder adults have now received widespread attention, but the effectiveness of the interventionandthe related mechanisms of influence require an exercise prescription dose relationship perspectivein order to make a comprehensive judgement on its benefits and many controversies. METHODS: A literature review was used to explore the effects of different resistancetrainingmethods on the brain and cognitive function of older adults, with the help of PubMed, Springerand Web of Science (Core Collection) databases to collect and collate resistance trainingrelatedliterature, search keywords include: resistance training prescription; cognitive function;prescription dosage; functional resistance training; older adults. RESULTS: High total training volume and medium to high intensity resistance trainingmaybemore effective in enhancing executive function; different resistance training modes, especiallyunstable plane resistance training and high-speed resistance training, are effective inenhancingcognitive function in middle-aged and elderly populations; complex and challengingresistancetraining or cognitive work-intervention resistance training are more positive for cognitiveimprovement in older adults. CONCLUSION: Training at least twice a week, as well as complex, challenging trainingwithtraditional or modified modalities, may contribute to cognitive function; there is no consensusonthe optimal total amount of resistance training, rest periods, and training modalities for differentpopulations, and further in-depth discussion is needed in the future.
... A widely recognized approach for improving balance ability is instability core training (ICT) [23,24,25]. Granacher et al. (2014) [26] categorized core training methods into two main types based on support surfaces and external conditions: traditional core training (TCT) and instability core training (ICT). TCT is typically performed on stable surfaces such as the oor or a bench [27,28], whereas ICT incorporates various unstable environments, including surfaces like water, sand, and gravel, as well as equipment such as Swiss balls, BOSU balls, foam shafts, and balance boards. ...
Background: Instability core training (ICT) has been widely used in various sports as a training method to enhance athletes' balance ability and athletic performance. The study aimed to examine the impact of ICT performed on unstable surfaces (BOSU balls, Swiss balls, and Wobble boards) versus traditional core training (TCT) performed on stable surfaces (floor and bench) on balance ability and paddling performance among young male Chinese kayakers. Method: A randomized controlled trial (RCT) recruited 63 eligible kayakers aged 16-19 years from the Nanchang Yao Lake kayaking training base in Jiangxi province, China. Participants were randomly assigned to the ICT group and the TCT group. Both groups completed a 12-week core training program consisting of 1-hour sessions, 3 times/week. Static balance ability was assessed using the Flamingo Balance Test (FBT), while dynamic balance ability was measured using the Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT). Paddling parameters were evaluated using the average stroke power and stroke rate for the men’s k-1 200m land dynamometer/ergometer sprint tests.Statistical analyses were conducted via multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with the significance level set at P<0.05. Results: The analysis for within-group effects demonstrated statistically significant improvements in static balance ability, dynamic balance ability, average stroke power, and stroke rate variables between the pre-test and post-test in both the ICT and TCT groups (p<0.05). No statistically significant differences were observed in the pre-test (p>0.05) for between-group effects. In contrast, statistically significant differences were found between the ICT and TCT groups in the post-test for all balance ability and paddling parameter variables (p<0.05). Conclusion: The findings suggest that while TCT significantly improves balance ability and paddling performance, ICT is more effective than TCT over a 12-week intervention among young male Chinese kayakers. Therefore, it can replace TCT, as it promotes better improvement in balance ability and paddling parameters for young male Chinese kayakers. Trial registration: The full name of the registry: Effect of instability resistance training on balance, core muscle strength, and athletic performance. The trial registration number is NCT06432595. The date of registration is 07/01/2024. The trial registration platform is ClinicalTrials.gov PRS (https://clinicaltrials.gov/)
... Participants stood on one leg and reached as far as possible in three directions (anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral) with the contralateral leg. Adhesive tape marked the directions on the floor, with increments of 5 mm for precise measurement [32]. The distances reached were normalized to leg length, measured from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus [33]. ...
... The distances reached were normalized to leg length, measured from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus [33]. Each participant performed four practice attempts followed by three recorded attempts per leg and direction, with 15 s rests between attempts and 5 min rests between directions [32]. For further data analyses, the mean of the three attempts was used for each leg in each of the three directions and a composite score (CS) was calculated as the summation of the three directions, divided by three times the leg length, and multiplied by 100. ...
... The supporting leg was slightly flexed at the knee (approximately 30 • ), and the contralateral leg at 45 • [34]. The best time from three attempts was recorded, and trials were repeated if balance was lost [32,35]. ...
Featured Application
This study supports instability-based training as a standalone method for improving balance and encourages further research to refine transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) protocols.
Abstract
(1) Background: Dynamic balance plays a crucial role in maintaining ankle stability and preventing injuries, particularly in active individuals. Instability devices are commonly utilized to enhance ankle strength and stability, and there is growing interest in integrating these tools with novel modalities, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), to maximize benefits. This study aimed to compare the effects of a 4-week balance training program performed on a selective instability device alone or combined with tDCS on dynamic balance in recreationally active young adults. (2) Methods: Twenty participants were randomized into two groups: one performing balance exercises on the Blackboard device and another combining the exercises with tDCS. Dynamic balance was measured at baseline, midway, and post-intervention using the Y-Balance Test and the Emery Test. (3) Results: Both groups showed significant improvements in balance performance, with increased reach distances and stability times (p = 0.001 and p = 0.04, respectively), after 4 weeks. However, the addition of tDCS did not yield additional benefits over balance training alone (p > 0.05). (4) Conclusions: These findings underscore the value of instability device-based balance training for enhancing dynamic balance while questioning the utility of tDCS as a combined therapy in healthy individuals.
... 5 This training seeks to coordinate the kinetic chain (muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems) to enhance the synergism and function of the core musculature. 6 Besides, core training enhances core muscle strength and endurance, 7,8 and proprioception. 9 Hence, it not only trains the muscles but also the neuromuscular control. ...
... 45 It has been claimed that core training improves agility through better motor recruitment, neural recruitment, or neural adaptation. 7 In addition, core training increases core stability and strength by improving the proprioceptive senses and providing muscle development and body control. 14 The core training performed in the current study may have contributed to the development of these phenomena (such as improved motor recruitment and proprioception), but it might not have been sufficient. ...
Context : Agility is crucial for soccer players, and core training can improve it. One study showed significant agility improvements after an intervention including core training for athletes with groin pain. However, it is unclear if these improvements resulted specifically from the core exercises or the entire program. Additionally, the study lacked a control group, making the findings inconclusive. Purpose : The current study aimed to explore the effect of core training, previously reported in the context of groin-pain rehabilitation, on agility performance in soccer players with groin pain. Methods : Twenty soccer players with groin pain volunteered to participate. They were randomly assigned to a core training group (n = 10) and a control group (n = 10). Before and immediately after that period, agility performance ( T test and Edgren Side Step Test) and self-reported outcomes (Copenhagen Hip and Groin Outcome Score) were assessed in both groups. Results : No significant session × group interaction was observed in agility T test ( F = 2.55; P = .12; ) and Edgren Side Step Test ( F = 3.18; P = .09; ) performances. Besides, Copenhagen Hip and Groin Outcome scores showed significant improvements ( P = .007 to <.001) in the core training group following the 12 weeks of core training and compared with the control group. Conclusion : The results showed that soccer players with groin pain who received or did not receive core training showed similar agility performance. However, significant improvements in self-reported outcomes were observed in soccer players compared with the control group. Clinicians and coaches should therefore consider core training when designing training and rehabilitation programs for this population to enhance recovery.
... Additionally, combining core strength training with SSGs brings significant positive results to CoDS performance. It is known that core strength training in young soccer players improves sport-specific performances, including balance [44], endurance [45], and agility [46]. Yet no significantly big differences between SSGC and simple SSG [35]. ...
Purpose
Football requires both linear movements and directional changes, crucial for performance. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluate small-sided games (SSGs) versus other training methods for enhancing change of direction speed in young soccer players.
Methods
Following PRISMA guidelines, studies were sourced from Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus. Inclusion criteria: healthy soccer players aged 6–19, SSG training programs of at least 4 weeks, and a control group. Data were assessed using the PEDro scale, and a meta-analysis was conducted using Hedges’s g ES.
Results
Fourteen studies were included. The analysis showed no significant differences between SSGs and running-based methods in change of direction speed (ES = –0.04, 95% CI = –0.30 to 0.21, p = 0.74). Significant improvements were observed within groups for both running-based methods (ES = –0.61, 95% CI = –0.89 to –0.33, p < 0.001) and SSG interventions (ES = –0.67, 95% CI = –0.91 to –0.44, p < 0.01). No significant differences were found comparing SSGs to technical skills and running-based methods due to high heterogeneity (ES = –0.84, 95% CI = –3.72 to 2.04, p = 0.568). Combined SSG interventions showed significant improvements (ES = –0.72, 95% CI = –1.03 to -0.41, p < 0.001).
Conclusions
SSG interventions are as effective as running-based methods in improving change of direction speed among young soccer players. Combined SSG interventions with other methods demonstrated robust improvements.
... However, a systematic review and meta-analysis [21] failed to show the significant advantage of the unstable surface in adolescents and young adults, suggesting that the use of unstable surfaces as compared with stable surfaces during strength training will not enhance the performance on stable surfaces. Although the effects of unstable surfaces during resistance training have been widely studied in general athletic populations, there are a limited number of studies involving adolescents [22][23][24] and no studies involving children that examined the effects of unstable resistance training programs. Judo is a dynamic sport. ...
... Despite studies that include inexperienced resistance training participants, unstable resistance training may be considered as effective as traditional stable resistance training [36,39,42]. Among young athletes, unstable training as compared to stable training achieved mostly similar improvements on the physical performance tests of lower limbs [22][23][24]. Additionally, with the use of plyometric exercises, unstable training appeared to be less effective for increasing CMJ height compared to stable conditions [23]. ...
Background: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of resistance training on stable versus unstable surfaces on strength performance in young judokas. Methods: The study included 18 young judokas (age: 13.2 ± 1.2 years) with 4.7 years of training experience assigned to either the URT (unstable resistance training) group or the STG (stable resistance training) group. Both groups performed the bench press and squat exercise for 12 weeks (3 sessions/week, 30–40 min each), with one group performing on the stable surface and the other on the unstable surface. The tests included the 1RM bench press and squat, maximal power output during bench press and squat (Pmax), abdominal strength test (AB60), and the standing long jump (SLJ). Results: Statistical analyses revealed a group × time interaction for AB60 (p < 0.02) in favor of the URT group. Significant main effects of time (p < 0.01) for the 1RM bench press, 1RM squat, bench press power, AB60, and SLJ were found. There were no significant effects for squat maximal power in both groups (p ˃ 0.05). Conclusions: Both unstable and stable resistance training effectively improved maximal strength and performance in adolescent judokas, with unstable training offering additional benefits in abdominal strength.
... Recent research has emphasized the positive effects of core exercises on athletic performance. It has been reported that these exercises can significantly improve dynamic balance, postural control, and general strength development in football players [2,3]. In addition, the fact that the core muscles are in an anatomical and functional relationship with the respiratory muscles creates a potential area for improving respiratory function [4]. ...
In addition to strength development, the increase in respiratory capacity has an important place in increasing the performance of athletes. For these reasons, the study aimed to examine the effect of core exercises applied to football players on respiratory parameters. The research group consisted of 12 randomly selected control groups and 12 core training groups, a total of 24 football players between the ages of 14-17 playing football at Niğde Youth and Sports Club. While the control group continued their routine football training, the core group performed static and dynamic core exercises for 45 min, 3 days a week for 8 weeks, in addition to general training. SPSS 26 program was used to analyze the data. The normality distributions of the data were determined with the Shapiro-Willk test. Percentage frequency distributions of the data were made, the Independent T test was used for intergroup comparisons, and the Paired T test was used for intra-group comparisons. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that core exercises had a positive effect on respiratory parameters.
... CST helps athletes build the foundational strength required for quick changes in direction, powerful accelerations, and stable body positioning, all of which are critical in hockey (Behm & Anderson, 2006;Reed et al., 2012). For Chinese youth hockey players, implementing CST could counteract current deficiencies in strength by improving muscle activation patterns, which, in turn, stabilise the body during complex, multi-directional movements (Granacher et al., 2014). This study aims to evaluate the effects of a CST program on strength quality among young male Chinese field hockey players, contributing valuable insights into optimising training practices in this population. ...
... Prieske et al. (2016), found that six weeks of core strength training significantly enhanced the strength of elite youth football players. Similarly, Granacher et al. (2014), reported that six weeks of core strength training significantly increased the abdominal strength of adolescent athletes. These research results differ from the present study, possibly due to the differences caused by the diversity of athlete types and training backgrounds. ...
... 83 Unstable surface training is often prescribed to combine strength and power development, increase 'core' recruitment and injury prevention into single exercises. 84 The available literature consistently demonstrates that unstable surface training is an inferior training method for strength [85][86][87][88][89][90][91] and power 83,92-94 development when compared to traditional (stable surface) training. In fact, significant reductions in maximal force capacity have been found in the squat, deadlift, chest press, shoulder press and plyometric exercises using unstable surfaces. ...
The recent rise in professionalisation and institutionalisation of competitive surfing has resulted in a dramatic increase in the use of alternative training modalities. These are often employed in an attempt to increase exposure to surf-like activities when appropriate ocean conditions are not available. It is commonly accepted that practice sessions should be grounded in theory, with training content informed by a clear scientific rationale. Despite this, research is yet to offer surfing coaches and surfers effective strategies to assist in implementing appropriate ‘off water’ training modalities. It is widely accepted that integrating a representative learning design is crucial towards the transfer of performance to competition environments. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to promote representative learning design (RLD) as a contemporary, principled framework that can underpin the creation of surfing training design and performance. Examples of constraints relevant to surfing are considered, and the efficacy and rationale of popular training methods are challenged. Finally, practical implications and coaching tools to underpin the implementation of representative learning design in surf training are provided.
