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Scatterplot showing the association of country-level precarious manhood beliefs and human development (the HDI).
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Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is hard to earn, easy to lose, and proven via public action. Here, we present cross-cultural data on a brief measure of precarious manhood beliefs (the Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale [PMB]) that covaries meaningfully with other cross-culturally validated ge...
Citations
... 4 Moreover, the 2018 Global Gender Gap Index, which measures progress toward gender equality, reported a lower score for Italy than for Germany (0.71 versus 0.79) (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2023). Italy also scored higher than Germany on various traditional gender ideology indicators, such as subjective beliefs regarding power distributions (0.5 versus 0.35) (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2023), and on precarious masculinity beliefs, indicating the glorification of masculinity (4.24 versus 3.41) (Bosson et al., 2021). ...
This study investigates gender biases in the evaluation of applicants for assistant professorships in Germany and Italy. Drawing on the justification-suppression model of prejudice expression, we explore whether biases against women are expressed, suppressed, or even reversed in the appointment process, considering the different normative gender climates and gender equality strategies in the two countries. Using harmonized factorial survey experiments with professors of economics, political science, and social sciences, we found that women in Germany have an advantage both in perceived qualification for an assistant professorship and in the propensity to receive an interview invitation. In contrast, women in Italy are neither disadvantaged nor advantaged. We also examine whether gender biases exist when there is ambiguity about applicants' academic performance (co-authorship) and career commitment (parental leave). Our results reveal a co-authorship penalty and a parenthood premium in both countries, with no gender differences observed. Our exploratory country comparison suggests that Germany's proactive gender equality policies may be more effective in reducing the gender gap in assistant professor appointments compared to Italy's gender-neutral approach, by favoring equally qualified female applicants.
Open access: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103113
... Moreover, the "us versus them" dynamics prevalent in ultra-masculine movements align with the resource conservation strategies outlined in Hobfoll's theory. By clearly delineating in-group and out-group boundaries, these movements create a perceived resource pool exclusive to their members, further incentivising adherence to hyper-masculine ideologies [50]. ...
This paper examines the potential integration of trauma-informed practices and Critical Studies on Men and Masculinities (CSMM) into global and European risk research, with a focus on foresight methodologies. It explores how the complex interplay between untreated trauma, rapid resource loss, radicalisation, and rigid masculine norms can potentially escalate societal risks. The study argues for the adoption of a more holistic approach in risk assessment and future planning, incorporating insights from trauma studies, masculinity research, and psychotherapy. The paper discusses the value of participatory foresight methods in capturing diverse perspectives and lived experiences, particularly those affected by toxic masculinity and radicalisation. We highlight the importance of considering intersectionality and the compounded traumas that may arise from the interaction of extremist masculine norms with other social factors. Current findings suggest that including psychotherapy scientists and practitioners in risk research could provide valuable insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying trauma, meaning-making, and identity formation. By adopting this interdisciplinary approach, the paper proposes that risk researchers may develop more comprehensive and nuanced understandings of societal risks, leading to more effective strategies for addressing the complex challenges posed by radicalisation, radical masculinity/ies, and the associated traumas in an increasingly uncertain world.
... While this conceptual framework broadens the understanding of gender inequalities affecting women, it is also fundamental to move forward our understanding of how patriarchal systems represent an issue that extends beyond women. For instance, despite men's largely privileged status, social expectations around manhood also come with several health and social detriments (e.g., Bosson et al., 2021;Richardson et al., 2021). Expanding beyond gender binarism, non-binary and transgender individuals confront even more stigmatization and discrimination than cisgender women, detrimental to their career prospects (Davidson, 2016) and mental health (Delozier et al., 2020), while also facing experiences that are largely not in common with those of cisgender women, such as family rejection (Veale et al., 2022) and identity denial (Morgenroth et al., 2023). ...
Gender inequalities are pervasive across various life domains, yet research has often overlooked how people perceive that women are treated differently than men. To fill this gap, we developed and validated the 16-item multidimensional Social Treatment and Experiences of Women (STEW) scale across different samples of women and different cultural contexts, namely Italy and the UK N = 1,195). Using exploratory (Study 1, N = 703) and confirmatory (Study 2, N = 550; Study 3a, N = 132; Study 4, N = 201; Study 5, N = 233) factor analysis, we identified four dimensions: workplace inequalities, domestic imbalance, harassment towards women, and social expectations. Studies 3a and 3b (N = 96) demonstrated convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the STEW, linking the STEW’s subscales to group-based emotions, reported experiences of sexism, attitudes towards affirmative action, and attitudes towards women’s sexual freedom. Replicating the factor structure in the UK, Study 4 found the STEW explained unique variance in group-based emotions and intergroup attitudes beyond personal experiences of sexism. Last, Study 5 showed that the STEW explains unique variance in collective action intentions and feminist identification beyond people’s attitudes towards gender equality. Highlighting the importance of conceiving gender inequalities as a multifaceted issue, the STEW provides a robust tool for assessing perceptions of differential treatment of women across domains and can inform more comprehensive interventions promoting gender equality.
... Empirical evidence across cultures (Bosson et al., 2021) suggests that for many men, manhood is experienced as a precarious identity that requires constant validation through the performance of masculinity, such as enacting masculine behaviors (Bosson and Vandello, 2011;Vandello et al., 2008). Because manhood is not a stable, inherent trait, it can be threatened (Mesler et al., 2022), for example, from societal changes where women gain more rights (Kimmel, 2017;Renström and Bäck, 2024a). ...
... Manhood has been described as a precarious identity and something that needs to be constantly proven and maintained through the performance of masculinity (Bosson and Vandello, 2011;Vandello et al., 2008). Notions of precarious manhood are recognized across cultures (Bosson et al., 2021). ...
Previous research in the Western world shows that men are in general more likely than women to deny human-induced climate change or certain aspects of it. We hypothesize that threatened masculinity contributes to such gender differences in Sweden. Threatened masculinity refers to the perception that a man’s masculinity is being challenged, undermined, or devalued, often due to societal changes that advance women’s rights. Given that environmental care and concern are typically associated with femininity, men who perceive that masculinity is threatened may be more likely to deny climate change to restore a sense of masculinity. Across three cross-sectional online surveys with representative samples of Swedish adults (total N = 2,476), men were more likely to deny climate change than women. Threatened masculinity—measured by belief in a shift in sexism and belongingness with men’s rights activists—predicted climate change denial. In line with our hypothesis, belief in a sexism shift and, to a lesser extent, belongingness with men’s rights activists mediated from gender to climate change denial. Hence threatened masculinity contributes to a higher tendency among men compared to women to deny climate change in these samples. This research adds to the understanding of gender gaps in environmental attitudes found in many Western countries and highlights climate change denial as a potential correlate of the growing gender-related polarization observed in these contexts.
... In the U.S., masculinity is predicated on norms such as emotional toughness, heterosexual presentation, self-reliance, and risk taking (Mahalik et al., 2003). Conformity to these norms is an integral part of precarious manhood, which posits that masculinity or manhood is a social status that must be earned, can be lost, and must be consistently proven (Bosson et al., 2021;Vandello et al., 2008). While masculinity can be conceptualized in several ways, we consider masculinity through these domains in the present study, as both have been linked to men's health care engagement. ...
... SD = 0.31, α = .68). The modified four-item Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale (Bosson et al., 2021) assesses endorsement of precarious manhood beliefs (e.g., "It is fairly easy for a man to lose his status as a man") rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Items were averaged, with higher scores indicating greater endorsement (M = 3.86, SD = 1.49; α = .78). ...
The present study aimed to evaluate how weight stigma and masculinity contribute to men’s health care engagement. A U.S. census-matched sample of 912 cisgender, heterosexual male adults (Mage = 46) were recruited through a market research company in April 2023 and administered a questionnaire to assess their experienced weight stigma in health care, weight bias internalization, conformity to masculine norms, and endorsement of precarious manhood beliefs. Weight-based and general reasons for avoiding and delaying health care were also assessed, as well as their perceived patient–provider relationship. Almost half (46.5%) of the participants reported experiencing at least one instance of weight stigma in health care. These experiences, as well as weight bias internalization, were related to greater weight-based and general health care avoidance and delay, as well as weaker patient–provider relationships. Masculinity was also related to greater general health care avoidance and delay and a weaker patient–provider relationship. These findings are consistent with previous research on women’s weight stigma experiences related to health care engagement, suggesting that weight stigma for men is similarly prevalent and impactful in health care. Findings also support previous research on masculinity’s impact on health care engagement. In sum, we found novel evidence to suggest that, relative to masculinity, weight stigma was a stronger predictor of men’s health care engagement.
... Boys in particular experience a great deal of anxiety about their status, because manhood, more than womanhood, is seen as a precarious social status (Vandello et al., 2008). Around the world, people commonly believe that manhood is not assured, but rather is a hard-fought, prized status to be won and defended, and a status that can be lost or taken away if one behaves in 'unmanly' ways (Bosson et al., 2021;Gilmore, 1990;Vandello and Bosson, 2013). In contrast, people are more likely to think of womanhood not as a status requiring social proof, but as a biological transition into which girls develop naturally. ...
... Although precarious manhood beliefs are ubiquitous, cultures around the world vary in the extent to which their citizens endorse the belief that manhood is a precarious social status (Bosson et al., 2021). This variability in beliefs about manhood may help explain global variation in attitudes towards and treatment of LGBTQ + populations. ...
Objectives
This review examines the sexual development of young men through a precarious manhood framework. The teenage and emerging adulthood years are a time of change and uncertainty for many boys and young men, heightening concerns about manhood. They are also a time when boys and young men are learning about and experimenting with sex. Sex and (hetero)sexuality are means for establishing and proving manhood, especially during a developmental period when other avenues (e.g. financial success) may be less available.
Methods and Results
This paper reviews research connecting precarious notions of manhood to sexual development across three areas. First, we examine how precarious manhood encourages sexual risk-taking and objectification of sexual partners. Second, we review research connecting precarious manhood to men’s sexual violence. Third, we link precarious manhood to men’s derogation of gender and sexuality minority (LGBTQ+) individuals and groups.
Conclusion
We end the paper by suggesting how sexual education programmes may consider a precarious manhood framework to foster healthier sexual development.
... This theory suggests that some men feel they may lose their status as masculine if their behavior is inconsistent with masculine norms and may then act in ways that will engage in manhood "restoring" behaviors, even if these go against social norms, are unsafe, or nonlogical. This theory is now backed by a large and growing base of evidence (e.g., Bosson et al., 2021;DiMuccio et al., 2017;Falomir-Pichastor et al., 2019;Iacoviello et al., 2020;Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2023;Valsecchi et al., 2022;Vandello & Bosson, 2013). According to this theory men may avoid certain health behaviors such as help seeking for mental health, in order to retain their masculine image (Vandello et al., 2019). ...
Studies have indicated that men are less likely to engage in COVID-19- safety precautions such as mask wearing and social distancing compared to women, and men’s adherence to masculine gender norms may contribute to this discrepancy. This systematic review sought to consolidate extant research exploring the relationship between men’s adherence to masculine norms and their attitudes and engagement with COVID-19 safety precautions. A systematic search was conducted across APA PsycInfo, MEDLINE, and SCOPUS to identify data from quantitative and qualitative studies, written in English, using samples including adolescent or adult males. Of the 4,326 studies initially identified, 11 studies met the inclusion criteria (eight quantitative and three qualitative). A total number of 3,134 male participants were included, the majority of which were from North America. The meta-analysis revealed a negative relationship between men’s adherence to masculine norms and wearing masks (r = −.52, n = 2,783) and general or mixed measures of COVID-19 precautions (r = −.18, n = 612). There was insufficient evidence to metaanalyse other specific relationships; however, the thematic synthesis revealed a limited quantity of evidence that reported mixed findings about whether or not masculinity is related the specific precautions of hand washing, social distancing, restricted travel, vaccinations, and staying at home. As the majority of studies were U.S. based and the concept of masculinity can vary by culture, further research is required to determine the cross-cultural validity of these findings. The present review provides valuable insight for policy makers looking to mitigate the spread of COVID-19.
... For some variables in this study, such analyses have already been conducted and published 10,11,14 . These analyses involve assessing whether the measurement properties of a scale, such as factor loadings or item intercepts, remain consistent across different groups or countries. ...
... Scientific Data | (2024)11:392 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03235-x www.nature.com/scientificdata ...
The Towards Gender Harmony (TGH) project began in September 2018 with over 160 scholars who formed an international consortium to collect data from 62 countries across six continents. Our overarching goal was to analyze contemporary perceptions of masculinity and femininity using quantitative and qualitative methods, marking a groundbreaking effort in social science research. The data collection took place between January 2018 and February 2020, and involved undergraduate students who completed a series of randomized scales and the data was collected through the SurveyMonkey or Qualtrics platforms, with paper surveys being used in rare cases. All the measures used in the project were translated into 22 languages. The dataset contains 33,313 observations and 286 variables, including contemporary measures of gendered self-views, attitudes, and stereotypes, as well as relevant demographic data. The TGH dataset, linked with accessible country-level data, provides valuable insights into the dynamics of gender relations worldwide, allowing for multilevel analyses and examination of how gendered self-views and attitudes are linked to behavioral intentions and demographic variables.
... Moreover, much of the research has been conducted on men from WEIRD countries (Western, Educated, Independent, Rich and Democratic, Henrich et al., 2010). Nevertheless there is movement here too, with two large scale cross-national studies on gender and men's roles with data from 62 and 49 countries, respectively, [Towards Gender Harmony project (TGH) and Understanding Communal Roles in Men project (UCOM), see Bosson et al., 2021Bosson et al., , 2022Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2022Olsson et al., 2023;Saxler et al., 2024]. Efforts to address gender equality for men thus also need to examine the role of such differences in culture, ethnicity, religion, gender and sexual identities. ...
While much progress has been made towards gender equality, diversity and inclusion in the workplace, education and society, recent years have also revealed continuing challenges that slow or halt this progress. To date, the majority of gender equality action has tended to approach gender equality from one side: being focused on the need to remove barriers for girls and women. We argue that this is only half the battle, and that a focus on men is MANdatory, highlighting three key areas: First, we review men’s privileged status as being potentially threatened by progress in gender equality, and the effects of these threats for how men engage in gender-equality progress. Second, we highlight how men themselves are victims of restrictive gender roles, and the consequences of this for men’s physical and mental health, and for their engagement at work and at home. Third, we review the role of men as allies in the fight for gender equality, and on the factors that impede and may aid in increasing men’s involvement. We end with recommendations for work organizations, educational institutions and society at large to reach and involve men as positive agents of social change.
... Some studies reported differences (;Gegenfurtner, 2021;Gegenfurtner et al., 2023;Heras-Sevilla & Ortega-Sanchez, 2020;Poteat & Vecho, 2016;Scandurra et al., 2017) showing that male teachers had more negative attitudes. Konopka et al. (2021) showed in a Polish context the role of masculinity threats on prejudice towards sexual and gender minorities, which is consistent with the cross-cultural construct of precarious manhood beliefs (Bosson et al., 2021). On the other hand, some studies showed an insignificant predictive role for gender (Grigoropoulos, 2022;Hall & Rodgers, 2019). ...
The aim of the two studies (N = 245 and N = 199) was to investigate the predictors of environmental guilt and analyze its mediating role between human-nature relationship and pro-environmental behavior intentions. In the first study, the connectedness to nature and social dominance orientation emerged as predictors of environmental guilt. In addition, guilt was an important mediator of the relationship between the connectedness and individual pro- environmental behavior. In the second study, guilt was predicted by gender, by locating the causes of the climate crisis in human activities rather than in the Earth's natural cycles, and by environmental nostalgia. In addition, guilt mediated the relationship between environmental nostalgia and willingness to engage in collective action and support systemic changes. Thus, environmental guilt seems to be an important factor in predicting a wide range of environmentally friendly activities: individual behavioral intentions, willingness to engage in collective actions, and support for systemic changes.
