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The Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra River is among the important freshwater bodies in Ghana which serves as a rich source for gold and diamond production in the country. Artisanal mining activities along river bodies promote continual introduction of wide range of contaminants (heavy metals) into these water bodies, and their to...
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... carbonates and quartz arenites. The valleys, over which the river flows, are underlain by thick sequences of metasediments -greywacke, argillite, and phyllite [16]. Due to the existing unregulated or illegal artisanal mining activities, the river is generally muddy with the river bed consisting of precipitated mud, sand, gravels and rocks. Fig. 1 shows the study area along the Birim River per this report. ...
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... of the river, thus, from Akyem Abodom to Gyadem near Akim Oda through major towns such as Kade, Akwatia and Kusi; whilst Site B represent samples obtained from the upper sections of the river, thus, from the source of the Birim River to Anyinam (a major town on the main road from Accra to Kumasi) through major towns including Osino and Adukrom. Fig. 1 shows the sampling locations along the Birim River. KA and KB represent, respectively, samples taken from study site A and ...
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Citations
... Duncan [52] reported elevated concentrations of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and iron (Fe) in the Fena River in Amansie Central, Ashanti Region. Similarly, Afun and Owusu [53] documented iron (Fe) levels in the Birim River exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. This presents a serious obstacle to the nation's sustainable water management [54]. ...
The mining industry is indispensable for development, and in developing countries like Ghana, it drives economic growth by generating revenue and creating job opportunities for millions of people. Nonetheless, irresponsible mining results in the deprivation of people’s right to surface land, predominantly held under customary land tenure, with agriculture as the mainstay of livelihood. Mining activities have extensive repercussions for the land tenure system, resulting in the displacement of people, the loss of land rights, and reduced control and access to land. All these impact the economic, environmental, and social conditions of the people in the community. This systematic literature review thoroughly analyzes the impact of mining on land rights in Ghana, revealing complex dynamics, challenges, and possible remedies. To achieve this, 183 of an initial pool of 495 academic journals, research papers, books, reports, policies, and legal documents were critically reviewed. This research reveals the challenges faced by mining-induced communities because of the displacement which has resulted in the loss of ancestral lands and disruption to community life. The displacement is also coupled with economic disparities and social tension. Furthermore, the ripple effects of environmental degradation, such as deforestation, water pollution, noise, and air pollution, have dire consequences on land use and ownership, particularly for communities dependent on natural resources. This review brings to light various responses and effective strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of mining on land tenure in Ghana. These include community engagement strategies, corporate social responsibility initiatives, and legal reforms. This study reveals that mining compensation depends on the duration of the mining lease, therefore implying that the expropriated parties have reversionary interests in their lands. The procedure for giving the land back to the owner is not explicitly outlined in the law. This underscores the need for a review of the law governing mining, sustainable mining practices, and environmental management to safeguard the land tenure system. This review enlightens policymakers, researchers, mining enterprises, and local communities regarding the intricacies of this convergence, offering a foundation for well-informed decision making. It underscores the crucial importance of upholding sustainable development, social fairness, and responsible resource management within the framework of Ghana’s diverse land tenure traditions.
... According to Lindsell et al. (2019), the River Birim takes its source from the Atewa range of hills in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The River Birim, which flows through several rural communities in the basin, starts from the Atewa Range forest until it joins the Pra River, which empties into the sea (Afum & Owusu, 2016). The Birim Basin can be found between latitudes 0 20'W and 1 15'W and longitudes 5 45'N and 6 35'N, with an area of 3,875 km 2 (Yirenkyi-Fianko et al., 2022). ...
... Exposure to high concentrations of iron recorded in water samples in this study area can pose significant health risks to the inhabitants of these mining communities, who depend on the river for drinking and other domestic purposes. High amounts of Fe in drinking water can cause severe health risks (Afum & Owusu, 2016). ...
... The significant difference between the seasons for temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, arsenic, and lead indicates that the pollution is likely due to anthropogenic activities in particular, artisanal and small-scale mining activities. Afum and Owusu (2016), in their study, assessed the level of heavy metals (Cr, Fe, Ni, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb) in the Birim River of Ghana. The result obtained showed that the Birim River is heavily polluted with heavy metals, with high heavy metal concentrations located in areas where small-scale mining was dominant. ...
Heavy metals and physicochemical parameters of water from the Birim River and tributaries in the Birim River Basin were analysed to assess its suitability for human use and consumption after a one-year ban on ASM activities in the area. 64 water samples were collected from 32 sampling sites along the Birim River and tributaries within the basin during the dry season and the rainy season, in addition to two repeat samples and two blank samples. Six heavy metals and three physicochemical parameters were analysed and compared with World Health Organisation guidelines. Surface water from the Birim River basin was still unsafe for drinking or other domestic purposes even after a one-year ban on ASM activities. Heavy metal concentrations in surface water were: Iron (0.3 to 21.9 mg/L - wet and 0.3 to 19.3 mg/L - dry), arsenic (<0.0005 to 0.0092 mg/L -wet and <0.0005 to 0.0094 mg/L - dry), lead (<0.0005 to 0.0042 mg/L - wet and 0.007- 0.011 mg/L - dry), cadmium (<0.0001 to 0.0001 mg/L - wet and 0.0001- 0.0002 mg/L - dry), mercury (<0.0001 to 0.0004 mg/L - wet and <0.0001 - 0.003 mg/L - dry) and manganese (<0.038 to 0.76 mg/L - wet and 0.022- 0.56 mg/L - dry). The T-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted. Significant changes in pH and conductivity indicate that a discharge or some other source of pollution has entered the aquatic resource, in this case, pollution from ASM activities. This paper provides relevant information for policymakers, environmental experts, and other stakeholders in enhancing water quality.
... Additionally, the country's inability to enforce regulations and the existence of several systemic barriers, including lack of data hinder the implementation of sound ocean health policies resulting in an exacerbation of the problem. While works have recorded high levels of toxic metals such as Cd, As, Hg, and Pb in water, sediment, and muscle of fish (Donkor et al., 2005;Fianko et al., 2007, Adokoh et al., 2011Mahu et al., 2015;Afum & Owusu, 2016;Duncan et al., 2018;Effah et al., 2021;Nyarko et al., 2023), such studies only date back to the last 50 years (Mahu et al., 2016). The lack of historical and baseline data makes it difficult to reference national or regional background levels to formulate policies that inform better decisionmaking. ...
The content of trace elements from Crassostrea tulipa (Ostreidae, Bivalvia) from four localities (Pra Estuary, Densu Estuary, Kpone Beach, and Anyanui Creek) along the coast of Ghana has been used as a bioindicator of environmental pollution. The lowest values of heavy metals correspond to the Crassostrea shells from Densu Estuary and Anyanui Creek, whereas the highest contents are recorded in the shells from Pra Estuary and Kpone Beach. Densu Estuary and Anyanui Creek are located in areas not affected by major industries, and only Densu is located in a densely urbanized setting. Crassostrea shells from Densu Estuary are only enriched in Ni. However, the Total Organic Carbon content of the sediments of the Densu Estuary indicates anthropogenic organic pollution not evidenced by the composition of Crassostrea shells. The Crassostrea shells from the Pra Estuary show enrichment in most of the analysed trace elements (Li, Be, V, Cu, Cr, Zn, Ga, Y, Sn, Pb, U, Th, ∑REE, and As) compared with other studied sites. This enrichment is related to heavy metals influx to the Pra River by the mining activities, extensive forest clearance, and loss of soil minerals. The Crassostrea shells from Kpone Beach present comparatively high content of some trace elements (Be, Ba, Cu, Zn, Nb, Pb, and REE). The metal pollutants are related to the input of the Heavy Industrial Area of Tema (located around 3.5 km west of Kpone Beach) and urban effluences from the Greater Accra Region. The high content of Ba, Cu, Zn, and Pb in Crassostrea is directly related to high phytoplankton productivity (mainly for diatoms) linked to the input of trace metals transferred into the marine food webs. In addition, some analyses of gastropod shells from Kpone Beach indicate that Cerithium and Nerita are more sensitive to accumulating Ni and As than Crassostrea. The values of trace metals from the Crassostrea shells of the Densu Estuary and Anyanui Creek are comparatively low. Considering the role of Crassostrea shells as bioindicators for heavy metals pollution, the less polluted localities are Anyanui Creek and Densu Estuary, whereas Pra Estuary and Kpone Beach are affected by anthropic activities such as mining, urban effluents, and industry.
... Arsenic and chromium released into water bodies as a result of mining and other human activities pose a carcinogenic threat to the local residents [15]. ere are high accumulations of heavy metals in the suspended mineral fractions of the Pra river and sediments were also greatly polluted with heavy metal sinks [16]. According to [17], the stream at Kokoteasua recorded high levels of Mn, Fe, and pH above the acceptable WHO drinking water guidelines, and this could pose a health risk to human health. ...
... On average, Iron (Fe), and Manganese (Mn) had concentrations higher than the other metals in all the tests performed. Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), and Nickel (Ni) relatively occurred in very small concentrations, almost negligible [16,17]. e order of concentration of the investigated metals follows this pattern in descending order; Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn > Ni > Hg. e metal concentrations were significantly different between sampling locations and months. ...
Water pollution has been a major issue across the globe because of industrial activities to meet the needs of people. Many chemicals are released into the environment through these processes, which affect human health and the environment. Hence, the study aimed to assess the concentration of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, Hg, and Fe) and the physicochemical and biological properties of the Dankra River. The samples were taken from three locations, Konyaw, Jumako, and Anwiankwanta, and subjected to standard laboratory tests using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Results revealed that the Dankran river was not polluted with the selected heavy metals under study. The physicochemical properties, the biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) concentrations were all within the allowable healthy limits according to WHO standards. Iron was the predominant metal in the Dankran river, with the highest concentration of 6.5913 mg/l. Thus, the river is safe to use, but there is a need for regular monitoring to support life. The order of concentration of the investigated metals follows this pattern in descending order: Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn > Ni > Hg.
... Every day, more than 3,000 metric tons of plastic waste is produced with quite a bit of it dropped as litter or put into improvised landfills. This waste choke open drainage systems and contaminates the sea (Afum and Owusu, 2016;Monney et al., 2013). Adanu et al. (2020) revealed that electronic-waste, related with the Agbogbloshie dumpsite, is Accra's principal source of air contamination. ...
... Every day, more than 3,000 metric tons of plastic waste is produced with quite a bit of it dropped as litter or put into improvised landfills. This waste choke open drainage systems and contaminates the sea (Afum and Owusu, 2016;Monney et al., 2013). Adanu et al. (2020) revealed that electronic-waste, related with the Agbogbloshie dumpsite, is Accra's principal source of air contamination. ...
... The geology of the study area is associated with the Birimiam foundation and the Voltaian metamorphosed sediments with associated rocks such as phylites, schist, and granites [11]. The district lies within the semi-deciduous forest zone and the vegetation consists of low-lying species of hardwoods. ...
Aim: To evaluate water quality of the river Birim after a two-year ban as a result of illegal mining activities in the catchment areas of the river. Methodology: Samples were taken during wet and dry seasons in acid-washed plastic containers. Two water quality indices were adapted for the river under study and used in the evaluation. These were Water Quality Index (WQI) and Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI). Twelve physicochemical parameters, such as pH, turbidity, conductivity, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total hardness, alkalinity, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, Fluoride, and chloride which were life-threatening and generally acceptable in water quality were used to evaluate the water quality index. The computed WQI was 439.168, which fell within the unfit for drinking category with turbidity and total suspended solids positively influencing the index. Iron, (Fe), As, Mn, and Hg were used to evaluate HPI, with an index value of 39.49, which was excellent considering a critical value of 100 set, below which the water is fit for good drinking water. Conclusion: Except for heavy metal pollution, the river Birim is unfit for drinking without chemical treatment and that, the two-year ban on artisanal small-scale mining was not enough for the river to recover fully from previous pollution episodes and hence did not have any impact on water quality of the river Birim.
... Most of these studies were conducted in specific basins prior to the government's ban and did not cover the entire illegal mining areas. These studies concentrated on the metal pollution, anthropogenic impacts of illegal mining on water quality and socioeconomic issues (Adiyiah et al., 2013;Afum & Owusu, 2016;Agyarko et al., 2014;Arah, 2015;Muvuka & Muriel, 2019;Rajaee et al., 2015). It is important to have a comprehensive overview of the impact of illegal mining in the country, and more especially, the effect of the ban on the water quality and the environment. ...
In Ghana, small-scale mining (SSM) has been carried out for many years, generating employment and income. Currently, illegal artisanal mining (“galamsey”) has impacted the environment negatively resulting in land degradation and water pollution. The government of Ghana responding to public outcry against the negative effects of “galamsey”, placed a ban on illegal small-scale mining activities in March 2017. This ban stopped both “legal” small-scale and the illegal artisanal miners from carrying out any such activity. In July 2018, this study was carried out to examine the status of water and sediment quality in 8 endemic regions of illegal mining to ascertain the outcome of the ban on the water quality of the rivers. Methodologies in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater were followed. Results of the study indicated that the rivers were high in total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity and colour, suggesting inflow of wastewater from the illegal mining activities and some run-off. Colour had a strong correlation with turbidity (r = 0.95) and TSS (r = 0.94) suggesting that the pollution originates from the same sources. Low levels of metals were found in both water and sediment. However very high concentrations of Fe were detected in both water and sediment. Mercury concentrations were low in the water column but relatively higher in the sediment. A comparison of the general water quality status of the water bodies in the Pra Basin in 2013 and 2018 using the Water Quality Index (WQI) showed a marginal improvement in quality in 2018 over 2013 in the Pra Basin. The improvement of water quality in 2018 is attributable to the ban.
... Akwatia is a major diamond extraction center in Ghana, and occupies an area of 240 km 2 , lying between latitude 6 • -3 ′ North and longitude 0 • -48 ′′ West and has a total population of 23,766 people. Along the Birim river, which passes through Akwatia Township, there are several farms and sites for illegal mining activities [25]. Obuasi is a gold mining community which occupies an area of 162.4 km 2 , lies between latitudes 6 • -12 ′ North, and longitude 1 • -41 ′′ West and has a total population of 175, 043 people. ...
Unregulated small-scale mining activities, by young untrained men using some poisonous chemicals, occur in several agricultural forest belts in Ghana. These activities contaminate water bodies in these areas, which happen to be the main farming sites where food crops are intensively cultivated. The presence of these heavy metal contaminants in popular food staples is therefore worrying because of its adverse health implications. Previous studies have shown that processing is able to decrease the concentrations of heavy metals in foods. This study investigated the effectiveness of home processing methods (boiling, frying and roasting) in significantly reducing the levels of heavy metal contaminants in food crops grown in and around two main mining centers in Ghana. The heavy metals contaminants analyzed for, were Arsenic (As), Cadmium, (Cd), lead (Pb), Manganese (Mn), and Mercury (Hg), determined using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). From the data, the average daily intakes of the heavy metals and the associated long-term health risks to consumers were assessed. Unprocessed samples from Akwatia had higher levels of contaminants than those from Obuasi. Levels of Mn, Pb and As recorded in all unprocessed samples were higher compared to WHO permissible limits in foods. The levels showed a decreasing trend in the processed samples; with the lowest As and Pb content recorded after frying and boiling. The study showed that roasting allowed for the least reduction in the heavy metal contaminations in the four food crops. The levels of Cd in both processed and unprocessed samples were within safe WHO specifications. Except for Pb in unprocessed cassava, boiled cassava and unprocessed plantain and Hg (unprocessed yam and roasted yam), the hazard indices of all metals in all food crops were less than one and posed no risk to consumers. The study therefore reveals that the normal home processing methods are able to reduce the levels of heavy metal contaminants found in cassava, cocoyam, plantain and yam considerably.
... Most of the towns in the basin are prominent for their mining activities, especially gold and bauxite. Open pits, direct dredging and panning are the main methods of mining in the study area (Adiyiah et al., 2013;Afum & Owusu, 2016). The AngloGold Ashanti mine at Obuasi is one of the largest in Africa. ...
Artisanal small-scale mining has been part of Ghana’s history, but recent public outcry on the devastating impacts of the phenomenon on water bodies, due to expansion in the sector, has led to clamp downs by various governments on the activity. This has called for evaluation of the water quality of the South-western Rivers System, which are small-scale mining endemic areas. Thirty-five river samples were collected in July 2018 and were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters using procedures outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewaters. The results revealed that the rivers are polluted with Fe and Cu, accompanied by very high levels of turbidity (mean = 488 NTU) and total suspended solids (TSS) (mean = 382 mg/L). NH3–N, PO4–P, BOD, and DO levels indicated mild pollution in the waters. Pollution of the rivers is attributable to impacts of artisanal small-scale mining, surface run-off as a result of high intensity rainfall, anthropogenic (indiscriminate waste disposal) and geogenic factors such as dissolution of minerals from the soil zone. It was observed that, if not strictly regulated, turbidity and TSS levels arising mainly from illegal small-scale mining activities could lead to shutdowns of a number of Ghana Water Company Limited treatment plants, leading to water supply challenges in the study area.
