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Sample set-up of elastic bands-resisted variable resistance. Figure 1. Sample set-up of chain-resisted variable resistance.
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The use of chain or elastic band-resisted variable resistance has become popular in the training of athletes. A number of studies have investigated the utilization of variable resistance vs. traditional resistance training on both acute and chronic performance measures. However, the mechanisms of the observed outcome measures are not fully understo...
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Context 1
... has been shown to enhance both acute and long-term per- formance parameters (Tables 1 and 2), and is being increasingly used by athletes to increase performance, and in rehabilitation. 14 VR is normally applied utilizing three methods: (1) cam systems, which modulate the strength curve of machine-based resistance exercise, (2) chain resistance (Figure 1), and (3) elastic band resistance ( Figure 2). Chains and elastic bands are forms of VR that can be attached to a barbell and used in many multi-joint exercises that have an ascend- ing strength curve, such as the barbell back squat and bench press, or a descending strength curve, such as the hang clean. ...
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Background: Block periodization has experienced a renewed interest in sports specialists due to proven efficiency in recent years with significant implications for optimizing the training programme by improving the methodology used. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of block periodization of the force program by combin...
Citations
... Additionally, the load will be increased to a greater degree in the upper range of motion (i.e., a more mechanical advantage), this feature has been demonstrated to be in favor of increasing muscle activation (Andersen et al., 2016), which is proposed as one of the underpinning mechanism of PAP (Tillin and Bishop, 2009). Moreover, greater elastic band resistance at the top position of the back squat appears to have a positive impact on increasing eccentric velocity, potentially leading to greater stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) and terminal eccentric forces (Wallace et al., 2018). Therefore, alterations in kinetics and kinematics during the eccentric phase of the VRT cannot be ruled out as a contributing factor to the PAP. ...
The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effects of back squat exercise with or without elastic band on countermovement jump performance. Thirteen collegiate male basketball players (age: 20.5 ± 0.9 years; height: 188.5 ± 8.5 cm; body mass: 82.8 ± 12.9 kg) completed 5 familiarization and 4 experimental sessions separated by at least 48 hours. In the experimental sessions, the order of the conditions was randomized so that the participants performed 1 set of 3 repetitions of barbell back squat at 85% of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM), 1 set of 3 repetitions of back squat at 85% 1-RM with 20% variable resistance training (VRT), 30%VRT, or 40%VRT of the total load coming from the elastic band. Countermovement jump performance was assessed before (baseline), 30 seconds, 3 minutes, 6 minutes, and 9 minutes following each condition. Jump height, rate of force development, peak power, and vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and medial gastrocnemius electromyography data were collected. Compared with the baseline, 30%VRT significantly improved jump height at 3 minutes post-exercise by 1.3 cm (P < 0.001) and 6 minutes post-exercise by 1.2 cm (P = 0.005); 40%VRT significantly improved jump height from 30 seconds up to the 9th minute (1.2 to 1.9 cm, P ≤ 0.036). The superior jump height was also accompanied by improved kinetic and electromyography data. No significant changes were observed in the barbell back squat and 20%VRT conditions. In conclusion, back squat at 85% 1-RM with 40% elastic band resistance led to superior vertical jump performance with an optimal time window of 3 minutes.
... Additionally, the load will be increased to a greater degree in the upper range of motion (i.e., a more mechanical advantage), this feature has been demonstrated to be in favor of increasing muscle activation (Andersen et al., 2016), which is proposed as one of the underpinning mechanism of PAP (Tillin and Bishop, 2009). Moreover, greater elastic band resistance at the top position of the back squat appears to have a positive impact on increasing eccentric velocity, potentially leading to greater stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) and terminal eccentric forces (Wallace et al., 2018). Therefore, alterations in kinetics and kinematics during the eccentric phase of the VRT cannot be ruled out as a contributing factor to the PAP. ...
The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effects of back squat exercise with or without elastic band on countermovement jump performance. Thirteen collegiate male basketball players (age: 20.5 ± 0.9 years; height: 188.5 ± 8.5 cm; body mass: 82.8 ± 12.9 kg) completed 5 familiarization and 4 experimental sessions separated by at least 48 hours. In the experimental sessions, the order of the conditions was randomized so that the participants performed 1 set of 3 repetitions of barbell back squat at 85% of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM), 1 set of 3 repetitions of back squat at 85% 1-RM with 20% variable resistance training (VRT), 30%VRT, or 40%VRT of the total load coming from the elastic band. Countermovement jump performance was assessed before (baseline), 30 seconds, 3 minutes, 6 minutes, and 9 minutes following each condition. Jump height, rate of force development, peak power, and vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and medial gas-trocnemius electromyography data were collected. Compared with the baseline, 30%VRT significantly improved jump height at 3 minutes post-exercise by 1.3 cm (P < 0.001) and 6 minutes post-exercise by 1.2 cm (P = 0.005); 40%VRT significantly improved jump height from 30 seconds up to the 9th minute (1.2 to 1.9 cm, P ≤ 0.036). The superior jump height was also accompanied by improved kinetic and electromyography data. No significant changes were observed in the barbell back squat and 20%VRT conditions. In conclusion, back squat at 85% 1-RM with 40% elastic band resistance led to superior vertical jump performance with an optimal time window of 3 minutes.
... Thus, the rest interval needs to be applied appropriately depending on the type of a CA. Wallace and Bergstrom [38] proposed potential mechanisms of accommodating resistance efficacy and one of them is reducing the large deceleration period of the concentric phase. It could explain why the use of accommodating resistance in the CA seems to generate less fatigue and allows us to observe the potentiation response in less than 180 s. ...
Background
Post-activation potentiation performance (PAPE) is a physiological phenomenon that has been studied numerously but the researchers are still seeking for the optimal application methods. The accommodating resistance was found to be an effective training method to acutely enhance subsequent explosive performance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of performing a trap bar deadlift with accommodating resistance on squat jump (SJ) performance with different rest intervals (90, 120, 150s).
Methods
The study had a cross-over design and fifteen strength-trained males (age 22.9 ± 2.1 years; body height 182 ± 6.5 cm; body mass: 80.4 ± 9.8 kg; body fat 15.8 ± 7.0%; BMI 24.1 ± 2.8; lean body mass 67.5 ± 8.8 kg) participated in one familiarization, three experimental and three control sessions within three weeks. The conditioning activity (CA) used in the study was a single set of 3 repetitions of a trap bar deadlift at 80% 1RM with approximately 15% 1RM of an elastic band. The SJ measurements were performed at the baseline and post-CA after 90 or 120 or 150s.
Results
The 90s experimental protocol significantly improved (p < 0.05, effect size 0.34) acute SJ performance whereas 120 and 150 s experimental protocols did not significantly improve performance. The following tendency was observed - the longer the rest interval, the smaller the potentiation effect; p value for 90s (0.046), 120s (0.166), 150s (0.745).
Conclusions
A trap bar deadlift with accommodating resistance and 90s rest interval can be used to acutely enhance jump performance. A 90s rest interval was found to be optimal to enhance subsequent SJ performance, but the potential rest interval extension to 120s could also be taken by strength and conditioning coaches as the PAPE effect is highly individual. However, exceeding the rest interval to more than 120s may not be effective in optimising the PAPE effect.
... cm 2 ) than the smaller distal region (Δ9.4 cm 2 ) (Earp et al., 2015). These differences in hypertrophy patterns may be attributed to differing movement kinetics or loading patterns between the exercises where external resistance increases during the concentric phase during a plate loaded knee extension and decreases during the concentric phase of a squat (Wallace et al., 2018). However, no studies have directly compared region-specific QF hypertrophy between OKC and CKC exercises under similar training conditions (relative external load, range of motion, movement speed, and training volume) despite their differential use in athletic and rehabilitation programs. ...
... Frontiers in Physiology frontiersin.org 08 distinct movement kinetics and muscle loading patterns, even when similar external loads (% 1-RM) are lifted for the same repetitions, at similar speeds (Wallace et al., 2018). For instance, because CKC presents with greater loading during the portion of the exercise while the muscle is operating at long muscle lengths when compared to OKC, regions of the muscle that are specialized for these conditions, such as those with longer fascicle lengths will contribute greater to CKC than OKC (Hinks et al., 2022). ...
Purpose: To determine whether kinetic chain pattern during knee extensor strength training influences quadriceps femoris center of mass and moment of inertia about the hip in a predictable manner as such changes can affect running economy. Methods: Twelve participants completed 8 weeks of both unilateral open (OKC) and closed (CKC) kinetic chain resistance training on opposing legs. Changes in quadriceps femoris muscle volume (VOLQF), center of mass location (CoMQF), and moment of inertia (I QF) about the hip were determined from magnetic resonance images scans. Regional hemodynamics of the vastus lateralis taken at 30% and 70% of muscle length during OKC and CKC bouts early in the training program were measured using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and used post hoc to predict changes in CoMQF. Results: While increases in VOLQF were similar between OKC (Δ79.5 ± 87.9 cm3) and CKC (Δ60.2 ± 110.5 cm3, p = 0.29), the patterns of hypertrophy differed; a distal shift in CoMQF (Δ2.4 ± 0.4 cm, p < 0.001) and increase in I QF (Δ0.017 ± 0.014 kg m2, p < 0.001) occurred in OKC but not in CKC (CoMQF: Δ-2.2 ± 2.0 cm, I QF: Δ-0.022 ± 0.020 kg m2, p > 0.05). Regional hemodynamics assessed by NIRS during a single training session displayed similar exercise and regional differences and predicted 39.6% of observed changes in CoMQF. Conclusions: Exercise selection influences muscle shape sufficiently to affect CoMQF and I QF, and these changes may be predicted in part from NIRS measurements during a single workout. Given I QF is inversely related to running economy and since CKC exercise provides a more proximal pattern of hypertrophy than OKC, it may be more preferential for running. The results from the present study also highlight the potential of NIRS as a tool for predicting patterns of hypertrophy between different exercises and exercise conditions.
... The main characteristic of VR is the variation of intensity within the training load [11]. Based on the existing literature, loads with VR are classified in three ways: (a) intra-session variable resistance (I-SVR), a modality characterized by the modification of loads between the different series in a training session; (b) intra-series variable resistance (I-sVR), which is characterized by a load variation within the same series-part of the series is performed with one load, and the other part of the series is performed with another load; and (c) intra-repetition variable resistance (I-RVR), which is characterized by changing resistance during the repetition-in these cases, it is common to use elastic bands, chains, or functional electromechanical devices that allow varying the load in each repetition [10,12,13]. From a physiological perspective, VR increases motor neuron excitability [14], causing (i) an increased phosphorylation of myosin light chains (MLC), (ii) an increased adenosine triphosphate activity (ATP), (iii) an increased contractile capacity of the muscle fiber, and (iv) an increased motor recruitment, mainly of type II muscle fibers [15,16]. ...
Variable resistance (VR) is a methodology that has shown good results in developing muscular strength and power. However, no updated information relates to the use of VR as an activation to trigger post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE). The primary objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to review and qualitatively describe studies published between 2012 and 2022 that used VR to generate PAPE in muscle power-dominant sports. The secondary objective was to calculate the effect size of the different power outcomes reported in the selected studies. The search was designed following the PRISMA ® guidelines for systematic reviews and meta-analyses and performed in the Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and MEDLINE between 2012 and 2022. The methodological quality and risk of bias were evaluated with the Cochrane Collaboration tool. The main variables were the throwing speed, time in sprint tests, and jump height. The analysis was conducted with a pooled standardized mean difference (SMD) through a Hedges' g test (95% CI). Twenty-two studies were included in the systematic review and ten in the meta-analysis, revealing a trivial effect for throwing speed (SMD = 0.06; CI = 95%: −0.23-0.35; p = 0.69), a small effect for the time in sprint tests (SMD = −0.37; CI = 95%: −0.72-−0.02; p = 0.04), and a moderate effect for jump height (SMD = 0.55; CI = 95%: 0.29-0.81; p < 0.0001). All forms of VR used for neuromuscular activation effectively triggered PAPE. Specifically, the results showed that activation with VR generates performance increases in time, in sprint tests and jump height, and a trivial effect in throwing tests (speed and distance).
... The descending variable resistance from the landmine is kinetically dissimilar to the ascending variable resistance from bands and chains (42,43,68). Research on variable resistance using free weight equipment focuses predominantly on the application of bands and chains to exercises with ascending strength curves (66,73). The revised statistics of a meta-analysis reporting improved strength with variable resistance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 training relative to constant resistance training showed no significant difference in effects (49,66). ...
The landmine row is an upper-body pulling exercise using a barbell as a lever. This column provides the strength and conditioning coach with a summary of trained musculature, technique descriptions for common landmine row variations, suggested instructional cues for improving technique and performance, an overview of unique exercise biomechanics, and programming recommendations.
... Typically, the resistance is lower at the beginning of the movement and gradually increases during the concentric phase. The AR is characteristically structured so that the resistance is less within the portion of the movement where the person's ability to generate force is less and greater where the person's ability to generate force is greater 6 . The AR technique in weight training is designed to compensate for the classic plate loaded (CPL) training method where the weight lifted is equal to the person's weakest portion of the lift 6 . ...
... The AR is characteristically structured so that the resistance is less within the portion of the movement where the person's ability to generate force is less and greater where the person's ability to generate force is greater 6 . The AR technique in weight training is designed to compensate for the classic plate loaded (CPL) training method where the weight lifted is equal to the person's weakest portion of the lift 6 . In other words, AR training permits to overload the other portions of the lift as well, by adjusting the weight to the individual's time-force curve in order to increase training stimulus 6,7 . ...
... The AR technique in weight training is designed to compensate for the classic plate loaded (CPL) training method where the weight lifted is equal to the person's weakest portion of the lift 6 . In other words, AR training permits to overload the other portions of the lift as well, by adjusting the weight to the individual's time-force curve in order to increase training stimulus 6,7 . It is usually applied through one of these three mediums: cam systems (e.g. ...
This study compared the absolute (kg) and relative (Wilks pts) maximal strength (MS) gains between the accommodated resistance (AR) and the classic plate loaded (CPL) training methods. Seventeen (17) powerlifters were separated into two groups [experimental (EG; n=9) and control (CG; n=8)]. Both followed the same 9-week, 4 times a week, 2 hour, wave-like percentage-based training program with pre and post MS powerlifting testing measures except that the EG trained with a 25% added AR (elastic bands or chains) and 80% of the CPL bar weight. Elastic band resistance relative to bar height for all powerlifting movements was measured with a stadiometer. A two-way repeated measure ANOVA was performed. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated with Morris’ estimate effect size. The EG significantly (p<0.05) improved more in the Deadlift Wilks pts and Total Wilks pts (+6.3±3.9% vs 0.1.±5.9%; ES=0.55 and 6.3±5.1% vs 2.1±2.3%; ES=0.24 respectively), that the EG trended (p>0.05) towards improving more in the Squat Kg (+6.5±9.7% vs 2.8±3.0%; ES= 0.04), Squat Wilks pts (+9.5±11.6% vs 2.9±3.2 %; ES=0.21), Deadlift Kg (3.5±3.7% vs 0.0±5.4%; ES=0.19) and Total Kg (3.4±3.5% vs 2.0±2.4%; ES=0.03). In contrast, the CG trended (p>0.05) towards improving more in the Bench Kg (4.3±3.5% vs -0.1±6.9%; ES=-0.16) and Bench Wilks pts (4.3 ± 4.0 % vs 2.6±7.5%; ES=0.1). Thus, the present AR technique produces significantly greater relative MS gains when prescribing deadlifts twice a week, non-significant greater MS gains when prescribing squats twice a week, but CPL produces non-significant greater MS gains when prescribing presses four times a week.
... Variable resistance training (VRT) can be defined as resistance training where the resistance/load varies throughout the joint range of motion to match the external load and the changing muscle force potential 2,4 . VRT has become a popular training modality to ensure that the force capacity of the muscle is sufficiently stimulated throughout the whole joint range of motion 5,6 . ...
... VRT can be induced by different equipment which increases either the external load/force and/or its lever arm. The most popular equipment to gain a variable resistance throughout the range of motion are elastic bands/tubes, chains, and cam-based and pneumatic machines 5 . For example Melo et al. 7 reported that 12 weeks of VRT using elastic tubes induced significantly larger increases in maximal lower body muscle strength (i.e., isometric leg extensions) in physically active participants when compared with traditional resistance training (TRT). ...
... With respect to previous meta-analyses [9][10][11][12] , Boolean operators "AND" and "OR" were used to combine different keywords (("variable resistance" OR "elastic band" OR "elastic tube" OR "rubber band" OR "Thera-band" OR "rubber tube" OR "elastic resistance" OR "CAM-based machine" OR "pneumatic machine" OR "pneumatic resistance" OR "chain resistance" OR "chains free weight") AND ("resistance training" OR "strength training" OR "explosive training" OR "power training" OR "plyometric training" OR "ballistic training") AND ("maximal strength" OR "repetition maximum" OR "RM" OR "MVC" OR "height" OR "speed" OR "velocity" OR "distance" OR "acceleration" OR "power" OR "power output" OR "force" OR "RFD" OR "rate of force development" OR "horizontal jump" OR "vertical jump" OR "SJ" OR "CMJ" OR "CMJas" OR "squat jump" OR "counter movement jump" OR "maximal strength" OR "explosive strength" OR "repetition maximum" OR "RM" OR "MVC" OR "maximal voluntary contraction")). Review articles published before February 2022 4,5,[9][10][11][12] were analyzed (by VA) to identify potential studies eligible to be included in the present analysis. Additionally, the reference lists of all articles fulfilling the inclusion criteria were screened (by TES) for publications not identified by the original search. ...
Objectives
The aim of the study was to systematically screen the literature and aggregate different effects between variable resistance training (VRT) and traditional resistance training (TRT) on maximal muscle strength and muscle power and identify potential sex- and training program-related moderator variables.
Method
A systematic literature search was conducted in SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and Web of Science. Interventions were included if they compared VRT and TRT in healthy adults and examined the effects on measures of maximal muscle strength and/or muscle power of the lower and/or upper body. A random-effects model was used to calculate weighted and averaged standardized mean differences (SMD). Additionally, univariate sub-group analyses were independently computed for sex and training-related moderator variables.
Results
Seventeen studies comprising a total of 491 participants (341 men and 150 women, age 18–37 years) were included in the analyses. In terms of maximal muscle strength, there were no statistically significant differences between VRT and TRT for the lower (p = 0.46, SMD = -0.10) or the upper body (p = 0.14, SMD = -0.17). Additionally, there were no significant training-related differences in muscle power for the lower (p = 0.16, SMD = 0.21) or upper body (p = 0.81, SMD = 0.05). Sub-group analyses showed a significant moderator effect for training period and repetitions per set for maximal muscle strength in the lower body (p = 0.03–0.04) with larger strength gains following TRT when performing more repetitions per set (p = 0.02, SMD = 0.43). No other significant sub-group effects were found (p = 0.18–0.82).
Conclusions
Our results suggest that VRT and TRT are equally effective in improving maximal muscle strength and muscle power in healthy adults.
... Consequently, the strength required to slow down or stop the weight at the end of the eccentric action, provoking higher loading in the muscle. This greater lengthening loading has been proved to enhance eccentric muscle activity [19,20] and induces a relevant increase in eccentric strength [21,22]. Therefore, training using free-weight with EB may differently challenge the neuromuscular system during each repetition and, in conformity with this data, it is plausible that this assistance descending force results in higher initial eccentric velocities and, thus, greater force during final portion of the eccentric phase, provoking higher force early in the shortening contractions [23,24,25]. ...
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of free-weight resistance with and without elastic band (EB) tension on upper-body maximal strength and strength-endurance in the bench press (BP) exercise.
Methods: Twenty-six trained males (age 26 ± 2.4 years; body mass 73 ± 7.6 kg; stature 172 ± 5.8 cm) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: CON (n = 13) or EXP (n = 13), and completed two weekly BP sessions over 12 weeks. Both groups followed the same training program except that the EXP group executed the BP with 30% of the prescribed load arising from the use of EB. BP one repetition maximum (1RM) and the maximum number of repetitions (MNR) to muscular fatigue were tested before and after the intervention.
Results: An analysis of covariance with the pre-test value as the covariate revealed that both CON and EXP groups exhibited improvement in maximal strength and muscular endurance. However, the EXP group experienced significantly larger improvements in 1RM (14% vs. 12%) and MNR (27% vs. 7%).
Conclusion: Combined free-weight and elastic bands may offer a higher training stimulus than free-weight resistance alone to improve upper-body strength and muscular endurance in trained adult men.
... At the same time, the resistance gradually increases in the latest stage of the action and exceeds the maximum weight that could be lifted when CRT is used, thus producing greater stimulation of the target muscles. Therefore, it is likely that the concentric stage of VRT is the most favorable component to facilitate the development of maximum strength, especially in the latest stage of the concentric action [57]. Israetel et al. [15] showed, using EMG, that in the squat movement, the activation of vastus lateralis was the highest in the early stage of the concentric phase and late stage of the eccentric phase under VR conditions. ...
... However, Stevenson et al. [47] argued that VRT can increase the speed of the eccentric phase but can harm the speed of the concentric phase. Recent analyses of the mechanism by which VRT increases maximum force revealed that the speed increase in VRT mainly occurred during the eccentric phase and that eccentric acceleration may contribute to the maximum increase in strength [57,58]. ...
Greater muscular strength is generally associated with superior sports performance, for example, in jumping, sprinting, and throwing. This meta-analysis aims to compare the effects of variable-resistance training (VRT) and constant-resistance training (CRT) on the maximum strength of trained and untrained subjects. PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were comprehensively searched to identify relevant studies published up to January 2022. Fourteen studies that met the inclusion criteria were used for the systematic review and meta-analysis. Data regarding training status, training modality, and type of outcome measure were extracted for the analyses. The Cochrane Collaboration tool was used to assess the risk of bias. The pooled outcome showed improved maximum strength with VRT, which was significantly higher than that with CRT (ES = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.42–1.19) for all the subjects. In addition, trained subjects experienced greater maximum-strength improvements with VRT than with CRT (ES = 0.57; 95% CI: 0.22–0.93). Based on subgroup analyses, maximum-strength improvement with a VRT load of ≥80% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) was significantly higher than that with CRT (ES = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.37–1.16) in trained subjects, while no significant differences were found between VRT and CRT for maximum-strength improvement when the load was
