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Results of random intercept cross-lagged model. Note. Standardized coefficients based on constrained unstandardized coefficients are shown. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

Results of random intercept cross-lagged model. Note. Standardized coefficients based on constrained unstandardized coefficients are shown. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

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Normative adjustment stimulates the development of attitudes and behaviours that promote school climate. Previous research has shown that it is a relevant factor in preventing involvement in risk behaviours that affect the quality of peer relationships in classrooms and schools. Previous the development of behaviour adjusted to the norms which prom...

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... results of the random intercept cross-lagged model are reported in Figure 1. At the between-person level, the covariance among the intercepts was significant and negative, indicating that adolescents with greater involvement in bullying perpetration across the four times reported less normative adjustment compared to other adolescents. ...

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... Previous studies have found that, compared to boys, girls report more emotional difficulties (Bailen et al., 2019), higher school connectedness (Springer et al., 2016), better quality in teacher-student relationships, and higher levels of teacher support (McGrath & Van Bergen, 2015). By contrast, boys are more prone to report lower norm adjustment and higher levels of aggressive conflict resolution compared to their female counterparts (Romera et al., 2022). Other studies did not find significant gender differences in the use of aggressive strategies (MacEvoy & Asher, 2012) or in how a positive peer network can be used to avoid aggression (Wang et al., 2021). ...
... In the same vein, bully-victims in both contexts, compared to pure victims, exhibit lower levels of normative adjustment. This is also in line with previous studies indicating that poorer attitudes and behaviors associated with social systems aimed at fostering a positive school climate are linked to more problematic aggressive behaviors, such as bullying perpetration (Romera et al., 2022). Our results suggest that normative adjustment may be important for understanding the bully-victim role in both traditional bullying and cyberbullying contexts. ...
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... Finally, participants who responded 'once or twice a month' or more to any item on aggression and victimization were classified as 'bully-victims'. These are the cut-off points usually used in this field (Romera et al., 2022). ...
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Defending the victim in bullying situations is a moral behavior that has received increasing attention in the literature. However, important questions about the development and maintenance of defending behaviors remain unanswered. The present study adopted a longitudinal design with two main goals: (a) identifying trajectories of change in individuals' defending behavior over time and (b) describing and comparing the initial levels and dynamics of change in normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity between the different defending trajectories. A total of 3303 students (49.8% girls; Wave 1 M age = 12.61 years; SD = 1.47) participated in the study. Data were collected in four waves with self-report questionnaires. Using growth mixture modeling, we found four defending trajectories (84% stable-high, 5% decrease, 4% increase, and 7% stable-low). Growth mixture model multigroup and comparative analyses found that adolescents in the stable-high defending group exhibited the highest initial levels of normative adjustment (M intercept = 5.47), social adjustment (M intercept = 5.48), and self-perceived popularity (M intercept = 5). Adolescents in the decrease defending group tended to reduce their normative adjustment over time (M slope = − 0.09), whereas the increase defending group increased their social adjustment (M slope = 0.18) and self-perceived popularity (M slope = − 0.04). The stable-low defending group showed low and stable levels of normative adjustment (M intercept = 5.01), social adjustment (M intercept = 5.03), and self-perceived popularity (M intercept = 4.4). These results indicate a strong association between normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity and involvement in defending behaviors. Bullying prevention programs could improve by adding a stronger focus on the development of classroom dynamics that promote adjusted behaviors and class-group cohesion.