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The rehabilitation of orphaned animals is commonly practiced but rarely scientifically documented. The behavioural development before release (e.g. regarding hunting skills) is particularly important for ensuring animals are self-sustaining after release. We document the rehabilitation and release of three confiscated cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cub...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... they grew older (12-15 months) the quantity and timing of feedings was varied (with 1-3 starvation days) to simulate varying hunting success in the wild. During their stay in the holding facility, the cheetahs were introduced to various dead and live prey animals, including poultry, rabbits and wild prey (Table 2), to induce hunting behaviour and allow recognition of prey once released. ...
Context 2
... Table 2 shows that the cheetahs successfully learned to hunt small and large wild prey. Judged by how quickly they showed interest by stalking or chasing prey, and their abilities to effectively catch prey and kill it, the cheetahs' hunting skills were observed to improve with experience. ...
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Citations
... Again, in South Africa, wildlife rehabilitation dated back since 1950s but becomes privatised in 1995 which makes rehabilitation efforts proactive till date (Wimberger ., 2010) and permits are obtained for effective rehabilitation of wildlife. Different species of animals have been successfully rehabilitated and release to the wild, some of them include Large felids (Houser ., 2011), vervet monkeys ( ) (Guy ., 2011;Gaydos ., 2013), harbor seals ( ) (Morrison ., 2012; Gaydos ., 2013) , loggerhead sea turtles ( ) (Cardona 2012) and yellow baboons ( ) (Ebua ., 2014). ...
Wildlife rehabilitation is the treatment and temporary care of injured, diseased, and displaced indigenous animals, and their subsequent release after recuperation to appropriate habitats in the wild. The high rate of exploitation and gross misuse of natural resources have led to large scale reduction in the number of wildlife species. Unfortunately, wildlife rehabilitation centres are not adequately available to cater for the needs of sick, diseased, injured or orphaned wildlife in Nigeria. This review assesses the prospects and challenges of wildlife rehabilitation. It also seeks to advocate the need for more wildlife rehabilitation centres in Nigeria. Direct conservation impact, educational, captive wildlife programs, scientific research and epidemiological impacts are benefits of wildlife rehabilitation to conservation. Insufficient fund, inadequate skilled personnel, poor welfare and health standard of the staff are some of the most pressing challenges faced in wildlife rehabilitation centres especially
... Post-release monitoring is especially challenging for rehabilitated wild felids. There is little information available on their post-release welfare, activity, and success (Houser et al. 2011), likely because they are typically nocturnal and difficult to observe. Range-wide, populations of Neotropical wildcats are in decline due to retaliatory human conflict, habitat loss/fragmentation, and prey defaunation (Sandom et al. 2017). ...
... Here we have provided one of the first fine-scale GPS assessments of an ocelot's distinctive movement patterns and habitat selection during six months of post-release monitoring. To fully determine the utility of wildlife release as a species conservation and biodiversity reconstruction tool, longer-term assessments of post-release behavior are needed (Houser et al. 2011;Guy et al. 2013;Paterson et al. 2021). With the growing popularity of both wildlife rehabilitation and conservation translocations as a rewilding tactic, increased collaboration between wildlife rescue centers and conservation organizations will help us understand the value of rescue and translocation for improving the health and viability of wildlife populations. ...
The sparsity of post-translocation monitoring data for rehabilitated felids leaves a pressing gap in our current understanding of their integration into and use of novel landscapes. Remote monitoring tools such as GPS collars can provide crucial insights into animal movement behavior and habitat selection following translocation and assist in the decision-making process for rehabilitation and release sites. In January 2023, a young male ocelot was released on the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica, after eight months of rehabilitation following a vehicle strike. Six months of post-translocation monitoring using a GPS and VHF-enabled collar revealed distinctive spatial patterns between the ocelot’s initial exploratory phase (~75 days) and subsequent residential period, as well as a selection for agricultural-forest matrix habitat over primary forest. We discuss the findings in terms of learning lessons for future post-release monitoring effects and provide insight into an individual’s patterns of habitat selection in an anthropogenically modified landscape.
... As an example for the order of magnitude of wildlife rehabilitation, Grogan and Kelly [5] estimated that in 2011 in England and Wales, more than 70.000 animals (more than 80% of which were birds) were admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers, with 40% being re-released. However, scientific evaluation of such rehabilitations is rare, raising concern about postrelease welfare as well as cost-effectiveness of spending scarce financial resources [6]. Rehabilitation needs to be evaluated with respect to its use for species conservation and carefully implemented with reference to behavioural development and human habituation before release, as both factors can affect behavioural responses later in life [7]. ...
Rehabilitation of injured or immature individuals has become an increasingly used conservation and management tool. However, scientific evaluation of rehabilitations is rare, raising concern about post-release welfare as well as the cost-effectiveness of spending scarce financial resources. Over the past 20 years, events of juvenile Eurasian lynx presumably orphaned have been observed in many European lynx populations. To guide the management of orphaned lynx, we documented survival, rehabilitation and fate after the release and evaluated the potential relevance of lynx orphan rehabilitation for population management and conservation implications. Data on 320 orphaned lynx was collected from 1975 to 2022 from 13 countries and nine populations. The majority of orphaned lynx (55%) were taken to rehabilitation centres or other enclosures. A total of 66 orphans were released back to nature. The portion of rehabilitated lynx who survived at least one year after release was 0.66. Release location was the best predictor for their survival. Of the 66 released lynx, ten have reproduced at least once (8 females and 2 males). Conservation implications of rehabilitation programmes include managing genetic diversity in small, isolated populations and reintroducing species to historical habitats. The lynx is a perfect model species as most reintroduced populations in Central Europe show significantly lower observed heterozygosity than most of the autochthonous populations, indicating that reintroduction bottlenecks, isolation and post-release management have long-term consequences on the genetic composition of populations. The release of translocated orphans could be a valuable contribution to Eurasian lynx conservation in Europe. It is recommended to release orphans at the distribution edge or in the frame of reintroduction projects instead of a release in the core area of a population where it is not necessary from a demographic and genetic point of view. Rehabilitation programmes can have conservation implications that extend far beyond individual welfare benefits.
... In agreement with Molony et al. (2006), this suggests that temporary captivity improves the chances of survival, as it allows for the accumulation of fat reserves and reduces the stress suffered during release manipulation [25]. However, most studies state that longer periods of rehabilitation lead to the loss of wild behaviors such as avoiding predators and the interruption of social development due to human habituation, which can result in low survival after release [10,[26][27][28][29]. ...
Simple Summary
We reviewed the database of a wildlife rescue and rehabilitation center in Costa Rica and described the main causes of admission, the admission factors that influenced release and mortality, and the predictive factors of survival and mortality of wildlife to determine general patterns and relevant factors currently affecting wildlife in Costa Rica. The results of the study demonstrate the value of maintaining, improving, and studying databases from wildlife rehabilitation centers to lead to a better understanding of threats to wildlife and subsequent implementation of conservation actions.
Abstract
The evaluation of data regarding rehabilitation practices provides reference values for comparison purposes among different rehabilitation centers to critically review protocols and efficiently improve each center. The aim of the present work was to present the main causes of admission to Rescate Wildlife Rescue Center for each taxonomic group, to determine the admission factors that influenced the release and mortality, and to determine the predictive factors of release and mortality of wildlife. To this end, a retrospective study was carried out based on 5785 admissions registered in the database of Rescate Wildlife Rescue Center in Costa Rica in 2020 and 2021. Statistical analysis consisted of sample characterization via the analysis of several categorical variables: species, order, class, age group, cause of admission, outcome, clinical classification and days in the hospital, and respective association with the mortality or release rate. Most of the rescue animals were birds (59.3%), then mammals (20.7%), reptiles (17.4%), and finally ‘others’ (2.6%). The main causes of admission were ‘captivity’ (34.9%), ‘found’ (23.3%), and ‘trauma’ (19.3%). Animals rescued due to ‘captivity’ and the classes ‘birds’ and ‘reptiles’ had the highest release rates. The causes of admission ‘trauma’ and ‘orphanhood’ and the class ‘birds’ had the highest mortality rates. In general, a greater number of days spent in the hospital and membership in the classes ‘reptiles’, ‘juveniles’, in need of ‘basic care’, or ‘clinically healthy’ were predictors of survival. In contrast, the age groups ‘infant’ and ‘nestling’ were predictors of mortality. These results demonstrate the value of maintaining, improving, and studying databases from wildlife rehabilitation centers, as they can provide useful information that can be used to enhance the allocation of economic resources, treatment methods, disease surveillance, public education, and regulatory decision-making, leading to a better understanding of threats to wildlife and subsequent implementation of conservation actions.
... For example, if imprinted on humans, released animals may show no fear of them, and, being tame, may become susceptible to life-threatening experiences such as being hunted by humans [40] or losing their antipredator behavior [41]. Furthermore, orphaned mammals must prove to be able to feed, find water, mate, and recognize and defend themselves against their predators in the environment before being released [16,42]. Thus, the survival rates of handreared orphans depend on the species and their biological and behavioral requirements. ...
Simple Summary
This study presents the Speaker Method as a novel approach for wildlife offspring release to facilitate their reunion with their mothers in their natural habitats, thereby avoiding the need for captive rearing. This method uses call records of the offspring to attract their mothers effectively. In this context, we aimed to prove the Speaker Method’s efficacy in releasing the offspring of three mammal species that arrived at a wildlife rescue center. The study showed promising results, successfully releasing 45.8% of Hoffmann’s two-toed sloths, 91.9% of brown-throated sloths, and 50% of mantled howler monkeys. These results provide empirical effectiveness for the Speaker Method as a release technique for offspring, underscoring its superiority over conventional nursery care by humans facing inherent challenges in rearing young animals separated from their maternal sources.
Abstract
Nowadays, wild animals are threatened by humans, with the number of species and individuals decreasing during recent years. Wildlife rescue centers play a vital role in the conservation of wildlife populations. This study aims to describe a new release technique, the Speaker Method, to rescue and facilitate the reunion of different baby mammals that arrived at a wildlife rescue center with their mothers within their natural habitat, avoiding the need for captivity. This method is based on a recorded baby’s cry played on a speaker to make a “call effect” in the mother. The efficacy of the Speaker Method for babies’ reunion with their mothers was 45.8% in Hoffmann’s two-toed sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni) and 91.9% in brown-throated sloths (Bradypus variegatus). Among the mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata), 50% of the babies could be released using this new technique. The findings suggest that the method could be helpful in the early release of young individuals, highlighting higher release outcomes in these three species compared to traditional nursery care provided by human caretakers, who face inherent difficulties in raising young animals without their mothers.
... Other learning experiences may involve exposure to prey (black-footed ferrets [163]), adding flexibly moving vegetation from the wild habitat (Golden lion tamarins, Leontopithecus rosalia [164]), and puppet-rearing chicks to avoid human imprinting [165]. Predator and prey recognition training has been undertaken for mammals, birds, amphibians and fish (reviewed by [19,113,126]), along with training to hunt [166]. Anti-predator training has had mixed success and is highly dependent on species, specific method and release context, but a thorough evaluation is hindered by research focusing on measuring behavioural responses to training rather than post-release survival [19,113]. ...
Endangered species have small, unsustainable population sizes that are geographically or genetically restricted. Ex-situ conservation programmes are therefore faced with the challenge of breeding sufficiently sized, genetically diverse populations earmarked for reintroduction that have the behavioural skills to survive and breed in the wild. Yet, maintaining historically beneficial behaviours may be insufficient, as research continues to suggest that certain cognitive-behavioural skills and flexibility are necessary to cope with human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC). This paper begins by reviewing interdisciplinary studies on the ‘captivity effect’ in laboratory, farmed, domesticated and feral vertebrates and finds that captivity imposes rapid yet often reversible changes to the brain, cognition and behaviour. However, research on this effect in ex-situ conservation sites is lacking. This paper reveals an apparent mismatch between ex-situ enrichment aims and the cognitive-behavioural skills possessed by animals currently coping with HIREC. After synthesizing literature across neuroscience, behavioural biology, comparative cognition and field conservation, it seems that ex-situ endangered species deemed for reintroduction may have better chances of coping with HIREC if their natural cognition and behavioural repertoires are actively preserved. Evaluating the effects of environmental challenges rather than captivity per se is recommended, in addition to using targeted cognitive enrichment.
... Releasing wild felids into the wild is a challenging conservation effort [16,17]. Animals need to re-integrate into the wild for a release to be considered truly successful [26], and this includes normal behavior and future breeding. Behavioral development before release (e.g., regarding hunting skills) is particularly important for helping to ensure that animals survive [27], as are other but more difficult skills to acquire, such as predator evasion, interaction with conspecifics, finding shelter, moving in complex terrain, and demonstrating orientation and navigation in complex environments [8,10,12,28]. ...
A 3- to 4-mo-old male ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and a 6- to 8-mo-old female margay (Leopardus weidii) were brought in from the wild, held in captivity, and rehabilitated for 906 and 709 days, respectively, at the Rescate Wildlife Rescue Center in Costa Rica. During captivity, both cats were kept as isolated as possible from humans and fed appropriate live wild prey. After maturing and demonstrating the ability to capture and feed on live prey, the cats were radio-collared, released at a national wildlife refuge previously assessed for predator and prey occurrence, and monitored. After 54 days, the ocelot was trapped while preying on chickens in a nearby community, and after 20 days, the margay was found dead, likely due to ocelot predation. Avoiding habituation to humans, assuring hunting abilities, and assessing release sites likely is not sufficient to assure successful release of these species, and more experimental releases with innovative and detailed protocols and monitoring are needed.
... Survival post-release [74,[82][83][84][85] Sufficient fat reserves or heavier mass on release ab Weight loss in migratory birds b Loss of wild behaviours such as predator avoidance and disruption of social development due to human habituation ab , although habituation was not related to survival in deer a [90] Hunting and wild behaviour training Survival to release [78] Construction of a pre-release flight tunnel for raptors b [78] N/A Survival post-release [91,[94][95][96][97] Provision of suitable hunting training b ...
... As stated by Morris et al. [13], "rehabilitation cannot confer immortality" (pg. 65), and released rehabilitated animals are susceptible to the same threats as their wild counterparts [91], yet not always equally. For example, rehabilitated and wild ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) in Australia faced the same predation pressures, however, translocated rehabilitated possums were at a disadvantage in unfamiliar territory and initially had lower survival rates [106]. ...
... The reviewed studies reported many intervention-related aspects of rescue, transport, treatment, and release methods that affect survival pre-and post-release. Habituation to humans and the associated loss of wild behaviours such as predator avoidance can result in poor survival [6,73,85,[90][91][92]. Therefore, shorter periods of rehabilitation may be better [67], yet in this time it is critical to teach hunting, foraging and wild behaviours to support survival [91,94,95]. ...
Millions of native animals around the world are rescued and rehabilitated each year by wildlife rehabilitators. Triage and rehabilitation protocols need to be robust and evidence-based, with outcomes consistently recorded, to promote animal welfare and better understand predictors of wildlife survival. We conducted a global systematic review and meta-analysis of 112 articles that reported survival rates of native mammals and birds during rehabilitation and after release to determine intrinsic and extrinsic factors associated with their survival. We assessed survival during rehabilitation and in the short- and long-term post-release, with the hypothesis that survival will vary as a function of species body size, diel activity pattern, trophic level and study location (region of the world). We aimed to determine the direction of effect of these factors on survival to assist in decision-making during triage and rehabilitation. Results showed that mammals and birds were equally likely to survive all stages of rehabilitation, and survival rates varied between locations. Birds in North America had the poorest survival rates post-release, particularly long-term, as did diurnal and carnivorous birds in the short-term post-release. Anthropogenic factors such as motor vehicle collisions and domestic or feral animal attack contributed to morbidity and post-release mortality in 45% (168 of 369) of instances. The reasons for rescue and associated severity of diagnosis were commonly reported to affect the likelihood of survival to release, but factors affecting survival were often species-specific, including bodyweight, age, and characteristics of the release location. Therefore, evidence-based, species-specific, and context-specific protocols need to be developed to ensure wildlife survival is maximised during rehabilitation and post-release. Such protocols are critical for enabling rapid, efficient rescue programs for wildlife following natural disasters and extreme weather events which are escalating globally, in part due to climate change.
... Close monitoring, at least in the initial phase after release, is highly recommended to ensure that the animal can survive on its own. 84 When comparing with published release success in other species (Table 3), post-release survival within the first month was excellent for lynx orphans (100%). However, interspecies differences, including body size, diet, and varying survival ability in general, may account for varying, species-dependent success rates. ...
The management of orphaned lynx since species reintroduction in Switzerland has been very challenging, including both animal welfare and conservation issues. We analyzed data on 120 presumptive orphans (75 found alive and 45 found dead) and described the fate of live individuals taken to a wildlife care center. We assessed the following management options of free-ranging orphaned lynx, which have been successively applied in Switzerland from 1981 to 2019: placement in a zoo, culling, rehabilitation, and feeding in the wild. Out of 42 animals taken to captivity, 18 (42.9%) died before placement or release. Deaths were related to pre-existent health impairments and, in a few cases, to captivity related injuries. Of eight released orphans, all survived the first month, three the first year, and two reached reproduction age. Lynx orphan management has been driven by the current political situation in Switzerland. Based on this study, we can make two recommendations: 1) it is absolutely necessary to pre-establish procedures and define clear responsibilities; and 2) if the option chosen implies captivity, it is crucial to identify a suitable infrastructure in advance, with competent staff who can respond to all needs of individuals, whether for a temporary or permanent stay.
... Pre-release behavioural conditioning is often used as a strategy to improve the success of conservation translocations and includes: the varying of feeding regimes to simulate the wild (Houser et al., 2011;Homberger et al., 2014;Nogueira et al., 2014); encouragement of natural hunting behaviours (Biggins et al., 1999;Houser et al., 2011); and predator avoidance training to increase antipredator behaviours towards both native and introduced predators (McLean et al., 1996;Shier and Owings, 2006;Moseby et al., 2012). ...
... Pre-release behavioural conditioning is often used as a strategy to improve the success of conservation translocations and includes: the varying of feeding regimes to simulate the wild (Houser et al., 2011;Homberger et al., 2014;Nogueira et al., 2014); encouragement of natural hunting behaviours (Biggins et al., 1999;Houser et al., 2011); and predator avoidance training to increase antipredator behaviours towards both native and introduced predators (McLean et al., 1996;Shier and Owings, 2006;Moseby et al., 2012). ...
Many studies report that translocation projects using captive or captive-bred animals have low success rates. Captive animals can quickly lose natural behaviours, including recognition of predators, when isolated from natural pressures. To combat this, pre-release behavioural conditioning is often used in conservation translocations to encourage natural behaviours and promote survival after release. Predator avoidance training is a conditioning technique that aims to improve prey responses to predators, usually by pairing a predator cue with an unpleasant stimulus. In this review, we collated and reviewed published literature on predator avoidance training and the methods used. Fish are the most common animal class to undergo predator avoidance training (42 % of published studies), followed by mammals (29 %), birds (20 %), amphibians (7 %) and reptiles (2 %). The majority of studies occurred in North America, Oceania, Europe, and South America, with very few studies in Asia, and none in Africa. The methods used during predator avoidance training varied highly, with a range of predator cues and unpleasant stimuli used. Further investigation into the most successful method of predator avoidance training is warranted, in order to determine which method work best for each animal group, and guarantee the best chance of survival for animals being trained. While most studies reported success, only one third of the studies released animals after predator avoidance training to determine how it affects their survival. Release and monitoring of animals is vital to determine the efficacy and validity of predator avoidance training, and should be examined further.
