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Representative 2D CLSM images of wet (A) and dry (B) FITC reacted CNFs (left) and 1.5 pH treated FITC adsorbed CNFs (right)
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Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have great potential to be a layer in packaging materials because of their good barrier properties. When paper is coated with CNFs, they are difficult to distinguish from the base sheet. This issue creates challenges when trying to determine where CNFs migrate relative to the paper fibers during coating and drying. A thr...
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Citations
... The Surface charge and conjucation of noncytotoxic elements with CNC stand as crucial parameters in the [198] Cellulose nanofibers Fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and thioflavin Industry food as a layer in packaging materials because of their good barrier properties [199] Cellulose nanocrystal Fluorescent 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin Bioimaging or metal ion detection (detection of Cu(II) ion) [200] Cellulose Nanocrystals Fluorescein-5′isothiocyanate ...
Nanocellulose refers to free nano-sized crystallites and fibrils isolated from cellulose-based biomass called cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Cellulose is famous for its unending abundance on earth as a renewable and environmentally friendly biopolymer. The extending investment in nanocellulose is due to its diverse applications throughout the fields of material science and biomedical engineering, which is facilitated by its sustainable creation, anisotropic anatomy, unique mechanical features, satisfying biocompatibility, and adaptable surfaced chemistry. The crucial functionality of its physicochemical properties, including size, mass status in liquid, and surface charge, in the ultimate interactions of nanoparticles with target subjects, is undeniable. The four fundamental sources of nanocellulose are bacteria (Gluconacetobacter), plants (trees, shrubs, and herbs), algae (Cladophora), and animals (Tunicata). This review provides an extensive survey of cellulose and its structural and biomedical properties. Furthermore, it attempted to gather data on this emerging nanomaterial and particularly focused on the extraction processes, technological progress, and exertion of CNC-based materials. The following sections discuss on the impact of these products on decreasing the rate of cytotoxicity in biological surroundings. Lastly, we presented an overview of the development of CNC-based materials implementation to gather data on the imaginable and futuristic uses of CNC-based functional nanomaterials and their future aspects in biomedical engineering applications.
... Several positively charged compounds have been reported to directly bind to the negatively charged surface of paper fibres through electrostatic interactions [335,[359][360][361]. The cationic pH dye Nile blue could be directly immobilised onto paper fibres in a fast incubation step and vacuum printed to form pH paper. ...
The use of paper as a sensing platform has great potential for point-of-care diagnostics in low-resource settings. However, there is a need for approaches that enable a higher level of control and customisation of the paper properties and reduce the cost of production and immobilisation of bioreagents onto paper. This thesis explores whether introducing digital printing into papermaking in combination with the recombinant protein production of paper-binding bioreagents could provide an accessible, scalable tool for the fabrication of affordable paper-based microfluidic biosensors with customised and varying paper properties. A novel printing method based on the localised vacuum-driven filtration of fibre suspensions (‘vacuum-driven printing’) was explored for the direct formation and patterning of engineered paper. An analytical model based on incompressible cake filtration theory was derived to predict the final thickness of the printed paper as a function of printing parameters and showed good agreement with the experimental data. This model enabled the rational design of complex 2D paper patterns with controlled and varying thickness profile that could be formed in a single printing process. The recombinant fusion of a cellulose-binding domain (CBD) into the protein reagent enabled its one-step immobilisation and purification onto paper fibres directly from the crude lysate, significantly reducing the cost and number of downstream processing steps required for the production of the bioreagent. The specific immobilisation provided by the CBD helped retain the protein’s diagnostic activity during air drying and long-term dry storage, even after four months at 20-37°C, when compared to direct physisorption of the protein reagent onto paper. The protein-bound fibres could be directly patterned with the vacuum-driven printing technique into the detection zone of a paper-based assay, forming bioactive paper. A proof-of-concept paper-based microfluidic biosensor was fabricated in a single vacuum-driven printing process, using unmodified paper fibres to form microfluidic channels of varying thickness, and protein-bound fibres to form bioactive paper at the detection zone of the assay. This research demonstrated a simplified, accessible, and lower-cost pathway to the production of paper-based biosensors with customised properties.
... Nanocellulose's easy tunability through surface modification or functionalization makes it easy to label with one of many different fluorophores such as calcofluor white, FITC, RBITC, TRITC, BODIPY, and DTAF for easy visualization during experimentation. [65][66][67][68][69][70][71] The general overall process of converting cellulose into nanocellulose is that cellulose is collected and purified through a process such as cooking and bleaching. Then the purified cellulose goes through a mechanical pretreatment, biological/chemical pretreatment, principal mechanical treatment, and then any post treatments such as surface modifications or labeling. ...
Aquaculture is a large part of the food production sector which is greatly expanding. One of the largest losses in aquaculture is due to pathogens. Current solutions for protecting farmed finfish from pathogens can be very expensive with variable efficiency. Current disease prevention strategies include vaccination. Types of vaccines include immersion vaccines, feed vaccines, and injectable vaccines. The most popular solution is oil-based injectable vaccines due to its protection. However, the oil-based adjuvant used in most of these formulations causes adverse reactions in the fish including reduced growth. These vaccines require multiple administrations throughout the fish’s lifetime causing unwanted handling stress and additional labor costs. Preliminary trials show that cellulose nanomaterials cause minimal adverse reactions when injected into salmon and does not significantly affect their growth. The goal of this research was to create an adjuvant from cellulose nanomaterials which would increase bacterin efficacy while avoiding harmful side effects. A prolonged release formulation was also desirable, obviating the need for multiple vaccinations. Additionally, hydrogels have been used for a wide variety of applications including drug delivery, making them an attractive aquatic vaccine adjuvant. Cellulose nanomaterials were decided as the polymer to make up the hydrogel matrix due to their biocompatibility, sustainability, high tunability, high abundance, low cost. The development of the hydrogel formulation, modifying the hydrogel for easier delivery into the salmon, measuring the diffusive properties of the hydrogel, and in vivo testing of the hydrogel for analysis of delivery methods and reactions to the formulation are described in this research.
... Various analytical techniques have been used to study latex binder migration and the analysis of the coating surface (Groves et al. 2001). Latex binder migration has been identified in paper coatings by ultra-violet absorption (UV) (Fujiwara and Kline 1987), confocal laser scanning microscopy (Purington et al. 2019), and attenuated total reflection infrared absorption (ATR-IR) spectroscopy (Halttunen et al. 2003;Kenttä et al. 2006;Chattopadhyay 2014). ...
A typical paper coating formulation contains anionically charged pigments and latex to provide a high-quality surface for printing. However, during application and drying, the latex can migrate to the surface or deep into the paper, resulting in weak coating layers or the need to use a high latex content to obtain the same strength properties. In this thesis, we have explored the introduction of cationically charged particles into the suspension as a way to reduce the amount of binder in the coatings, improve coating strength and reduce binder migration. With these aims in mind, we have generated cationic precipitated calcium carbonate and styrene-butadiene latex through adsorption of polyelectrolytes on their anionic counterparts and show that paper coatings, prepared using formulations of these cationic components, have higher coating strengths than coatings produced with conventional anionic formulations. While performing the charge reversal process, the particle size of the original anionic material is maintained. Furthermore, we show that cationic coating formulations can provide equal strength to the paper coatings at reduced binder levels. To reduce binder migration in the coatings, we explored using a mixed cationic-anionic formulation where an anionic latex binder is adsorbed on the surface of a cationic pigment to produce an overall anionic suspension. We show that latex-covered pigment suspensions have lower binder migration in paper coatings when compared to coatings produced with standard formulations. This is because the latex is fixed to the pigment and is not able to migrate independently from the pigment during the drying step. Building on the concept of mixed cationic/anionic particulate systems, we investigated its use to improve the dewatering of CNF/particulate suspensions. Specifically, we generated CNF/precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC) suspensions and show that the substitution of cationic PCC for traditional anionic PCC pigments leads to higher (up to 2.7 times) dewatering rates of the suspensions. The higher dewatering rate is shown to be the result of the adsorption of the anionic CNF on the cationic PCC particles. The resulting dry CNF/PCC films have Young’s moduli and tensile stress of up to 4 GPa and 60 MPa respectively. However, after being immersed in the water these films lost their mechanical properties Finally, to improve the water resistance of these films, we performed an acetylation reaction on the films using supercritical CO2 as the solvent.
... Therefore, the adsorption and removal of dyes from water have attracted more and more attention in the last years. CNF-based functional nanomaterials, such as pure CNFs [82], dried/pyrolyzed CNFs [83], positively/negatively modified CNFs [84][85][86], hybrid CNF/chitosan [87,88], and catalyst-modified CNFs [89][90][91], have also shown potential application for effective removal of organic dyes. ...
... Previously, Purington et al. reported that CNFs could be utilized to adsorb fluorescent dye for the production of tagged CNFs [82]. Another study indicated that the drying and pyrolysis of CNFs that are produced from a few biomasses, such as wood, bacteria, and algae, could be used for oil absorption and dye adsorption [83]. ...
Cellulose is one of the important biomass materials in nature and has shown wide applications in various fields from materials science, biomedicine, tissue engineering, wearable devices, energy, and environmental science, as well as many others. Due to their one-dimensional nanostructure, high specific surface area, excellent biodegradability, low cost, and high sustainability, cellulose nanofibrils/nanofibers (CNFs) have been widely used for environmental science applications in the last years. In this review, we summarize the advance in the design, synthesis, and water purification applications of CNF-based functional nanomaterials. To achieve this aim, we firstly introduce the synthesis and functionalization of CNFs, which are further extended for the formation of CNF hybrid materials by combining with other functional nanoscale building blocks, such as polymers, biomolecules, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and two-dimensional (2D) materials. Then, the fabrication methods of CNF-based 2D membranes/films, three-dimensional (3D) hydrogels, and 3D aerogels are presented. Regarding the environmental science applications, CNF-based nanomaterials for the removal of metal ions, anions, organic dyes, oils, and bio-contents are demonstrated and discussed in detail. Finally, the challenges and outlooks in this promising research field are discussed. It is expected that this topical review will guide and inspire the design and fabrication of CNF-based novel nanomaterials with high sustainability for practical applications.
... There are lots of fluorescent dyes like C.I. Disperse Yellow 184 and C.I. Disperse Red 277, which is utilized in the textile industry to dye synthetic fibers such as polyester, acrylic, and polyamide (Szuster et al., 2004). Also, there are many dyes with fluorescent properties to react with cellulose based on fluorescein (Purington et al., 2019;Zammarano et al., 2011). However, there is a commercial fluorescent reactive dye which produced by DyStar called on Remazol luminous Yellow FL (C.I. ...
Nowadays, fluorescent reactive dyes have limited color shades and brilliance; thus, they are a group of colorants in the textile industry for dyeing of cotton fabric with high demand. This research has designed and synthesized two novel fluorescent reactive dyes based on fluorescein. In this respect, 4,4′-diaminostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid and 4-aminophenyl-4-β-hydroxyl ethyl sulfone sulfate ester reacted with the cyanuric chloride, separately. Then those were reacted with fluorescein and obtained two reactive dyes D1 with dual-emission wavelength and D2 with an emission spectrum. The characterizations of two dyes were carried out using the TLC, ¹HNMR, ¹³CNMR, FTIR, elemental analysis, Ultra-violet spectra, and Fluorimeter techniques. The absorption and emission parameters of dyes in solutions were obtained. The result indicated that the parameters of D1 were more than D2. The results showed that two dyes had a positive solvatochromism effect. The synthesized dyes were applied on cotton fabric, and their color characteristics, fixation and exhaustion percentage were studied.
... Previous studies showed that CNF have good retention and distribution within paper pulp fibers, and thus they could affect different properties of paper when added to the pulp furnish (Boufi et al. 2016, Ding et al. 2018. Addition of CNF to paper pulp aimed generally at improving mechanical and barrier properties of paper sheets while coating with CNF had different functions such as for visualization of paper sheets by Fluorescent-tagged cellulose nanofibers (Purington et al. 2019), making super hydrophobic paper , Gu et al. 2019, for oil and grease resistance paper (Tyagi et al. 2018), as well as improving tensile and barrier properties (Mirmehdi et al. 2018) and to impart anti-soiling property to paper . CNF were also used as a carrier for pigment used for paper coating (Oh et al. 2019). ...
Cellulose nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulp are characterized by different surface properties due to presence of lignin at their surface, in addition to lower cost than isolated from bleached pulp. In the current work, the effect of cellulose nanofibers isolated from unbleached neutral sulfite and bleached soda rice straw pulps (so called UBCNF and BCNF) on improving paper sheet properties of unbleached and bleached rice straw pulp (so called UBP and BP) was studied. The effect on mechanical properties (tensile strength, burst strength, and tearing resistance) and physical properties (porosity and water vapor permeability) was studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to assist in explaining the obtained results. The result showed that using BCNF and BP resulted in better improvement in mechanical properties and also more effective in reducing porosity of paper sheets than in case of using UBCNF and UBP. These results indicated stronger bonding between nanofibers and pulps’ fibers in case of using BCNF and BP (surfaces rich in cellulose hydroxyl groups) than in case of UBCNF and UBP (surfaces rich in lignin). Water vapor permeability of paper sheets made from unbleached or bleached pulps did not significantly affect by the addition the nanofibers.
... Porous substrate development for capillary preconcentration 3-dimensional (3D) porous NFC substrates readily absorb aqueous solutions containing analyte due to the capillary action within the hydrophilic NFC matrix. During this fluid uptake process, while the aqueous phase moves along the porous network of the substrate, organic molecules from the analyte solution are adsorbed onto the NFC surface by hydrophobic and van der Waals interactions similar to hydrophobic chromatography, CH-p interactions (aromatic-carbohydrate interactions), and electrostatic interactions (Tang et al. 2003;Glasser et al. 2012;Kosior et al. 2013;Purington et al. 2019). This suggests a preconcentration strategy as illustrated in Fig. 1e. ...
Preconcentration of organic analytes from an aqueous solution onto a substrate surface can significantly improve trace level analyte detection by Raman spectroscopy. Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)-based three dimensional (3D) substrates have great potential for this application since they can readily absorb water when exposed to an aqueous analyte solution while adsorbing organic molecules from the solution. However, the transport of organic analytes inside the substrate along with water, loss of mechanical robustness, and disintegration of the 3D structure in water limit the use of porous NFC substrates in aqueous environments. To overcome these deficiencies, a chemically crosslinked network of methacrylated carboxymethyl cellulose was incorporated into the NFC matrices, which improves the stability and robustness of the substrates in water. Application of a polydimethyl siloxane-based hydrophobic coating on four of the five analyte exposed surfaces further improves preconcentration efficiency by forcing the analyte solutions to pass through one hydrophilic surface only. Samples with a range of porosities were investigated to optimize sampling time, solution uptake volume, and substrate robustness in water. Using this substrate, parts-per-million detection sensitivity for organic probe molecules in aqueous solution was possible. Incorporation of silver nanoparticles within the substrates further enhanced substrate sensitivity to parts-per-trillion level detection of probe molecules, due to the Raman signal enhancement by surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) effect. A model is presented here which describes the linearity, saturation, and depletion of the SERS signal.
Graphic abstract
... Purington [112] first used CNF to adsorb fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and then coated the paper with modified CNF. It is found that fluorescent dyes can be easily adsorbed, and are not easy to dissociate in water, so they exist stably in the CNF network. ...
As one of the most abundant natural polymers in nature, polysaccharides have the potential to replace petroleum-based polymers that are difficult to degrade in paper coatings. Polysaccharide molecules have a large number of hydroxyl groups that can bind strongly with paper fibers through hydrogen bonds. Chemical modification can also effectively improve the mechanical, barrier, and hydrophobic properties of polysaccharide-based coating layers and thus can further improve the related properties of coated paper. Polysaccharides can also give paper additional functional properties by dispersing and adhering functional fillers, e.g., conductive particles, catalytic particles or antimicrobial chemicals, onto paper surface. Based on these, this paper reviews the application of natural polysaccharides, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, chitosan, and sodium alginate, and their derivatives in paper coatings. This paper analyzes the improvements and influences of chemical structures and properties of polysaccharides on the mechanical, barrier, and hydrophobic properties of coated paper. This paper also summarizes the researches where polysaccharides are used as the adhesives to adhere inorganic or functional fillers onto paper surface to endow paper with great surface properties or special functions such as conductivity, catalytic, antibiotic, and fluorescence.
... Due to the disruption of hydrogen bonding of the porous CNF samples by the fluid, high fluid volatility, and dissolution of cellulosic materials by the fluid matrix Fig. 4 Average cumulative pore volume of the freeze-dried CNF gels (prepared from 10 to 35 wt% CNF suspensions) measured by BJH analysis primarily render most of the hydrophilic fluids unsuitable for this method. In contrast, when submerged in a non-volatile silicone oil bath, the pores in the freeze-dried CNF samples become saturated with oil due to the high wettability of CNF samples by silicone oil as evidenced by low surface contact angle of the oil on CNF sample surface (Fig. 5), the capillary action, hydrophobic interaction, and van der Waals forces between CNF and silicone oil (Tang et al. 2003;Glasser et al. 2012;Purington et al. 2019). No visible change in the size and shape of the CNF samples were observed during the silicone oil saturation step. ...
Cellulose based foams and aerogels are gaining interest as an alternative to petroleum derived materials. The characterization of the internal void fraction, or porosity, of these materials is an essential parameter in assessing their potential for practical applications. The physical nature of these materials includes a web-like pore morphology, high compressibility, and significant roughness of both the internal and external surfaces. These issues cause the determination of porosity using standard methods to be unreliable. In this study, low density cellulose nanofibrils foams were generated, and pore volume and pore size results were compared using mercury porosimetry, Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) gas sorption, image analysis, and geometric methods. A new simple silicone oil saturation-based method to measure the porosity of these materials was also presented. Utilizing this method, the porosity of cellulose based foams and aerogels have been determined with improved accuracy compared to the existing standard methods.
