Table 1 - uploaded by Fritz Strack
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Ratings ofFunniness and Difficulty: Study 1 Position of pen
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... the basis of the facial feedback hypothesis, we predicted that the cartoons would be rated least funny when the activity of the muscles associated with smiling was inhibited (lips condi- tion), but would be rated funniest when this activity was facili- tated (teeth condition). Table 1 gives an index of the funniness ratings for the four cartoons and for each cartoon separately. As can be seen, the results clearly support the predictions. ...
Context 2
... predicted pattern proved to be largely consistent for all individual cartoons. As Table 1 shows, all four cartoons were rated least funny in the lips condition, and three of the four cartoons (except Cartoon 1) were rated funniest under the teeth condition. No significant interaction between the experimental conditions and the four cartoons resulted from a mixed-model analysis of variance (ANOVA) treating the cartoons as a within- subjects factor, F < 1. ...
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Citations
... Embodiment theories have inspired many behavioral studies on how bodily appearance, sensory perceptions, and actions influence the mind (e.g., Bargh & Shalev, 2012;Peck & Shu, 2009;Strack et al., 1988). ...
Virtual scenarios have brought intriguing enhancements to the in‐reality experiences of individuals, and a paradigm of embodiment, rather than disembodiment, has evolved. Research on virtual embodied experience has connected the trends of virtualization and embodiment of experience but remains scattered and inconclusive. This systematic review of 125 peer‐reviewed journal papers in the Scopus database uncovers extant work on the contextualization, conceptualization, and causal links of virtual embodied experience. It finds that extant literature neglects certain cutting‐edge scenarios. Research still needs to identify more explicit dimensional structures of virtual embodied experience and more antecedents and consequences along the causal chain. Research has grounded itself in theoretical constellations across cognitive and behavioral science, sociology, and computer science. Nevertheless, flaws remain, not least the use of disembodiment‐oriented theories to explain embodied experience and insufficient emphasis on the subjectivity of technology. As the lack of suitable research frameworks has presented obstacles to quantitative research, this study proposes a framework highlighting virtual embodied experience bridging virtual scenario elements (technological and environmental factors) and multiple consequences (perception, responses, and performances). This study sets out a future research agenda, including promising research directions such as exploring virtual embodied experiences in multiple virtual scenarios, clarifying its dimensional structures, and underlining the complexity of how it mediates virtual scenario elements and commercial consequences and how it leads to possible negative consequences.
... From a theoretical perspective, the variability of research results presents important opportunities for learning about the underlying process(es) of interest (Lavelle, 2022). For example, studying the role of facial feedback in human judgment, Strack et al. (1988) asked participants to rate the funniness of cartoons while holding a pen in their mouths. As expected, the same cartoons seemed less funny when the position of the pen inhibited rather than facilitated a smile, indicating that facial feedback can influence judgment without awareness of the emotional meaning of the facial expression. ...
Three commentaries below provide different perspectives on data analysis and reporting. They generally focus on how the quality of the measures and manipulations determines the value of the analysis. Norbert Schwarz and Fritz Strack's comment is less on the right statistic and more on “sloppy reasoning, gaps
between theoretical concepts and their operationalizations, and blissful ignorance of the situated nature of human thinking, feeling, and doing contribute more to the limited reproducibility of empirical findings than the choice of a particular test
statistic.” They propose that particular effects are contextual and inappropriately labeled as true or false. Instead, our job is to focus on general constructs that make sense of the diversity of human experience and psychological reactions. Too often
studies replicating psychological effects in the noisy and confounded conditions of the marketplace result in statistical uncertainty of garbage in, garbage out. Researchers instead need to look toward tests of specific interactions, which can
clarify the influencing factors based on theoretical considerations. The second comment is by Andrew Gelman, an outstanding psychological statistician. He proposes that “once the data have been collected, the most important decisions have already been done.” He then provides four recommendations that enable
the statistics to work appropriately. The first requirement of an effective study is to be sure that the measures address the construct of interest. Similar to the position of Schwarz and Strack, it is important to articulate the relevance of a
statistically significant finding. The second recommendation seeks to curb large number of studies with inflated effect sizes built from narrow studies and unwarranted optimism. The third recommendation is to simulate data from a model and consider the distribution of possible results. That is often done to test
a new analysis method, but it can be even more important in marketplace studies where novel characteristics of the sample and experimental conditions are included in the analysis. Finally, he recommends that one consider likely analyses needed
before getting the data. Such foresight would encourage, for example, thinking about the kind of data needed to defend the equality of the control demographics against the treatment. The final commentary is by Stijn van Osselaer. He agrees that p-values
reflect the detailed methods from a given study but do not focus on the problem of generalizability. Like Gelman, he sees designs focused on effect sizes may have generated too many studies that do not replicate. He contrasts broad explorations with narrowly defined existence tests that provide evidence
that an effect exists somewhere but are mute on other contexts where they may apply. For theoretical problems relevant to applications, it is important to identify moderators through broad sampling across population characteristics, stimuli, and situations. He proposes that consumer psychologists should not try to do
everything in one paper, but to build practically relevant, applicable knowledge across multiple articles. Different articles, authors, and research methods play various roles, with each article focusing on important stages in the process from
generating hypotheses, providing existence proofs, and exploring their broad applicability. That pragmatic approach can integrate theoretical silos that seek to resolve complex human problems and has promise as a criterion for relevant publications.
... To investigate if people with high as compared to low emotional empathy differ in sensitivity to facial feedback Andréasson and Dimberg [31] developed a method inspired by Strack, Martin and Stepper [1]. The participants in the study by Strack, et al. [1] were told that the researchers were developing tools for handicapped people to be able to use the mouth instead of the hand when writing. ...
... To investigate if people with high as compared to low emotional empathy differ in sensitivity to facial feedback Andréasson and Dimberg [31] developed a method inspired by Strack, Martin and Stepper [1]. The participants in the study by Strack, et al. [1] were told that the researchers were developing tools for handicapped people to be able to use the mouth instead of the hand when writing. This was a cover story used to conceal the true aim of the study. ...
... Andréasson and Dimberg [31] wanted to simplify the method used by Strack, et al. [1] without losing its efficiency to prevent participants to see through the true purpose of the study. First, as a cover story, they told the participants that they wanted to measure amylase in the saliva in the mouth with a wooden stick covered with a web. ...
... Stepper (1988) concluíram que ao segurar uma caneta entre os dentes (simulando um sorriso) enquanto se assiste a um desenho animado, os indivíduos achavam os desenhos mais engraçados do que quando assistiam sem a caneta. 23 Para isso, era dito que eles usariam a caneta entre os dentes para escrever, simulando como pessoas com deficiência física fazem. Assim, os indivíduos não reconheceriam conscientemente a expressão de felicidade forçada, de forma que não atrapalhasse o resultado da pesquisa. ...
A toxina botulínica do tipo A é o tratamento estético não cirúrgico mais comum em todo o mundo. Seu mecanismo de ação consiste em bloquear a liberação da acetilcolina, neurotransmissor responsável pelas contrações musculares, reduzindo, assim, o aparecimento das rítides causadas pela hiperatividade dos músculos, o que gera um resultado estético relevante. No entanto, há evidências de que esse procedimento não é somente uma forma de amenizar as rugas. A toxina botulínica também pode interferir na propriocepção das emoções, de acordo com a teoria do feedback facial, e trazer efeitos emocionais na vida do paciente, haja vista que a musculatura facial não só expressa, mas também pode regular as emoções. O objetivo deste trabalho foi mostrar que o tratamento com esse neuromodulador traz consequências que vão além da estética na vida do paciente, melhorando sua autoestima e também podendo atenuar os sintomas de ansiedade e depressão. Sendo assim, seus resultados geram um impacto positivo na qualidade de vida.
... Specifically, emotional information was processed faster (Havas et al., 2007) and detected more accurately (Niedenthal et al., 2001(Niedenthal et al., , 2009) when participants' facial expression could be congruent (e.g., smiling for positive information) compared to when it had to be incongruent (e.g., smiling for negative information) with the valence of the information. Moreover, participants' mouth posture has been found to influence evaluations (Strack et al., 1988). When muscles involved in smiling were activated by holding a pen with their teeth (vs. ...
... When muscles involved in smiling were activated by holding a pen with their teeth (vs. protruding lips), participants rated cartoons to be funnier (Strack et al., 1988; for a meta-analysis, see Coles et al., 2019). Note, however, that the boundary conditions of this effect are still under debate (Wagenmakers et al., 2016; see also, Coles et al., 2022;Noah et al., 2018;Strack, 2016). ...
... Experiment 2 employed a slightly different manipulation of articulation posture -participants held a straw in their mouth similar to Strack et al. (1988). We expected to replicate the results of Experiment 1 even when participants were not led to think of their facial posture in terms of vowel articulation. ...
Facial muscle activity contributes to singing and to articulation: in articulation, mouth shape can alter vowel identity; and in singing, facial movement correlates with pitch changes. Here, we examine whether mouth posture causally influences pitch during singing imagery. Based on perception–action theories and embodied cognition theories, we predict that mouth posture influences pitch judgments even when no overt utterances are produced. In two experiments (total N = 160), mouth posture was manipulated to resemble the articulation of either /i/ (as in English meet; retracted lips) or /o/ (as in French rose; protruded lips). Holding this mouth posture, participants were instructed to mentally “sing” given songs (which were all positive in valence) while listening with their inner ear and, afterwards, to assess the pitch of their mental chant. As predicted, compared to the o-posture, the i-posture led to higher pitch in mental singing. Thus, bodily states can shape experiential qualities, such as pitch, during imagery. This extends embodied music cognition and demonstrates a new link between language and music.
... On the opposite end, the sufficiency version claims that facial movement alone can elicit an associated emotion [51]. Lastly, the modulation version views the emotional experience as elicited by some external stimulus or cue outside of one's own facial movements, whereby a signal from facial afferents plays a modulatory role in initiating and maintaining the affective state [52]. ...
... Studies using this approach generally conclude that the induction of smile-related facial expressions leads to enhanced positive affect. In contrast, the inhibition of smile-related expressions through the activation of antagonistic muscle groups leads to its diminution [52,[54][55][56]. A second approach involves the presentation of emotionally charged stimuli and instructing participants to suppress induced facial movements or to constantly maintain neutral facial expressions [49]. ...
Background
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is associated with interoceptive deficits expressed throughout the body, particularly the facial musculature. According to the facial feedback hypothesis, afferent feedback from the facial muscles suffices to alter the emotional experience. Thus, manipulating the facial muscles could provide a new “mind-body” intervention for MDD. This article provides a conceptual overview of functional electrical stimulation (FES), a novel neuromodulation-based treatment modality that can be potentially used in the treatment of disorders of disrupted brain connectivity, such as MDD.
Methods
A focused literature search was performed for clinical studies of FES as a modulatory treatment for mood symptoms. The literature is reviewed in a narrative format, integrating theories of emotion, facial expression, and MDD.
Results
A rich body of literature on FES supports the notion that peripheral muscle manipulation in patients with stroke or spinal cord injury may enhance central neuroplasticity, restoring lost sensorimotor function. These neuroplastic effects suggest that FES may be a promising innovative intervention for psychiatric disorders of disrupted brain connectivity, such as MDD. Recent pilot data on repetitive FES applied to the facial muscles in healthy participants and patients with MDD show early promise, suggesting that FES may attenuate the negative interoceptive bias associated with MDD by enhancing positive facial feedback. Neurobiologically, the amygdala and nodes of the emotion-to-motor transformation loop may serve as potential neural targets for facial FES in MDD, as they integrate proprioceptive and interoceptive inputs from muscles of facial expression and fine-tune their motor output in line with socio-emotional context.
Conclusions
Manipulating facial muscles may represent a mechanistically novel treatment strategy for MDD and other disorders of disrupted brain connectivity that is worthy of investigation in phase II/III trials.
... These insights derive from the literature on embodied cognition, which provides several examples (not strictly related only to the posture) of how the state of the body can in uence certain aspects of our behavior (Ferracci, Manippa, et al., 2021). One of the rst examples is an experiment conducted by Strack and colleagues in 1988 (Strack et al., 1988), in which participants were induced with a pursed expression, using a pen held between their lips, and then a smiling expression, making them hold the same pen between their teeth. As a result, by inducing a smiling expression the participants were led to evaluate some cartoons as funnier. ...
Purpose
Recent studies have explored the effect of specific body postures on dominance perception. We investigated whether the high-power posture (i.e. an open and expansive posture) and the low-power posture (i.e. a closed and contracted posture) can influence the decision-making process involved in the Ultimatum Game (UG). Specifically, we considered the effect that the posture assumed by the counterpart can have on the participants.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were shown images that presented avatar opponents in a high-power or low-power posture while they played the role of the responder (Experiment 1) or the proposer (Experiment 2).
Findings
In Experiment 1 results show that the responders’ decision was strongly driven by the fairness of the offer rather than the posture of the proposer (avatar). Offers perceived as fair were much more often accepted than unfair ones regardless of the counterparts’ posture. An additional result also shows that among the unfair offers, those formulated by low power posture proposers were more accepted than those formulated by the high-power posture proposer. For Experiment 2 results show instead that the proposers modulated their offers based on the posture of the responders (avatar). Specifically, responders with high power-posture were proposed more generous offers than those with low power-posture.
Originality/value
As far as we know, our study is the first one that takes into account the posture of the counterpart and the effect that the conveyed power can have on the participants’ decision-making processes. Another novelty element is that we compare the high-power posture and the low-power posture considering both the effects of responders’ postures on proposers’ allocation and the effects of proposers’ postures on the responders’ decision to accept the offer.
... The measurements were repeated both with gel electrodes and printed carbon electrodes and similar results were obtained ( Supplementary Fig. 4-5). For the study of facial muscle, we followed the approach of Strack and coauthors [27] to generate well-defined activation. Two facial actions were used: "lips" and "teeth". ...
... Subjects with sEMG and IPG electrodes were recorded while performing three facial activation tasks: "lips" (holding a pen in the mouth with the lips), "teeth" (holding a pen in the mouth with the teeth) and facial expressions. The "lips" and "teeth" tasks were adapted from Strack and coworkers [27]. We chose this task as it is a simple mechanical facial "expression" which can be activated for longer without feeling overly self-conscious. ...
The importance of facial muscles is evident in the critical role they play in numerous functions. The purpose of some actions (e.g. chewing, swallowing) is clear. Others, such as yawning and the expression of emotion are more elusive. Despite their ubiquity, the manner by which facial muscles affect physiological processes is not clear. In particular, how facial muscles affect blood flow has received little attention. Here we present a new wearable approach to investigate the face. Soft electrode arrays were used to detect subtle changes in blood flow in the temporal superficial artery following muscle activity. Changes in response to muscle activation are clearly evident and conspicuously more complex than in the forearm. Simultaneous bio-potential and bio-impedance mapping of the face unravels the complex manner by which these muscles help shape human physiology.
... The present study investigates the influence of FMM on the detection of changes in emotional expressions in PD patients and in HCs. Mimicry manipulation was implemented by different pen-holding conditions, as originally described by Strack et al. [17]. Holding a pen with the teeth activates the zygomaticus major muscle, which is activated while smiling. ...
... Visual stimuli were presented on a computer screen (Samsung SyncMaster SA450, 22 in.) located in front of the observer at a viewing distance of 90 cm.FMM was conducted following Strack et al.[17] by applying three different pen-holding conditions. Holding a pen with the teeth innervates facial muscles activated while smiling, whereas holding the pen with the lips inhibits those facial muscles and instead activates the orbicularis oris muscle used for frowning. ...
Background:
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects the motor system but also involves deficits in emotional processing such as facial emotion recognition. In healthy participants, it has been shown that facial mimicry, the automatic imitation of perceived facial expressions, facilitates the interpretation of the emotional states of our counterpart. In PD patients, recent studies revealed reduced facial mimicry and consequently reduced facial feedback, suggesting that this reduction might contribute to the prominent emotion recognition deficits found in PD.
Methods:
We investigate the influence of facial mimicry on facial emotion recognition. Twenty PD patients and 20 healthy controls (HC) underwent a classical facial mimicry manipulation (holding a pen with the lips, teeth or non-dominant hand) while performing an emotional change detection task with faces.
Results:
As expected, emotion recognition was significantly influenced by facial mimicry manipulation in HC further supporting the hypothesis of facial feedback and the related theory of embodied simulation. Importantly, patients with PD generally and independent from the facial mimicry manipulation were impaired in their ability to detected emotion changes. Our data further show that PD patients facial emotional recognition abilities are completely unaffected by mimicry manipulation, assuming that PD patients cannot profit from an artificial modulation of the already impaired facial feedback.
Conclusions:
These findings suggest that it is not the hypomimia and the absence of the facial feedback per se, but a disruption of the facial feedback loop, which leads to the prominent emotion recognition deficit in PD patients.
... Such neighbouring location might suggest that unconscious facial muscle movements might also contain insights into the thermal state of the body and not only show an emotional state of mind. This statement is also a relevant outcome of facial feedback hypothesis proposed by Fritz Strack andhis team in 1988 (Strack (2017); Strack et al. (1988); Coles et al. (2020)). ...
Harsh climate conditions, events of over-heating and over-cooling created a gap between envisioned indoor environment and actual performance of the buildings. This paper suggests a potential development of the study which was held in Norwegian Institute of Science and Technology ”The Study of Facial Muscle Movements for Non-Invasive Thermal Discomfort Detection via Bio-Sensing Technology”. A new concept of intelligent platform is proposed for detection and prevention events of the thermal discomfort among silver age cluster of people. It suggests that involuntary facial muscle movements are an important part of the human thermal perception within indoor conditions since they are directly connected to the brainstem which is located within sub-cortical part of the brain that asses thermal state of the body. Such neighboring location might hint that unconscious facial muscle movements can also contain insights on thermal state of the body and not only show emotional state. It is proposed to collect bio-metrical data on activity level, heart rates profile and facial muscle movements itself in ZEB test cell which will be equipped in a way that mimics apartment environment. Collected data will be perfect ground for implementation of the Artificial Neural Network with aim to cluster data and be able to have prediction that would allow to adjust HVAC system in advance and create comfortable thermal profile.
