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Rating of task success and stability. (A) Participants' rating (Mean ± s.e.m., n = 12) for success and stability during the different conditions. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.005, Bonferonni-corrected; (B) A scatterplot for the Timelessness vs. Spacelessness rated success. BTS, Both time and space; NTS, Not both Time and Space. Yellow dot refers to one OBE participant.
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Meditation practice can lead to what have been referred to as “altered states of consciousness.”One of the phenomenological characteristics of these states is a joint alteration in the sense of time, space, and body. Here, we set out to study the unique experiences of alteration in the sense of time and space by collaborating with a select group of...
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... Over an even longer course of training towards a "pure" experience of T (i.e., devoid of any processes not involved in being conscious of T), the meditator may be able to decouple from it yet more fundamental brain-body processes such as those underlying a sense of space, time and self [57,61,64] leading to altered states of consciousness commonly associated with meditation [21,43,65,66]. Repeated such experiences would allow a meditator to develop metacognitive models about abstract properties of mind, such as the "nature of self" [12,20,21,60,67]. ...
... Nonetheless, incorporating their computational method into the framework proposed here would be a way forward. while also generalizing the proposed framework to diverse meditation techniques and states (OM, nondual, etc.; [11,12,21,42,43]), and their neurocognitive correlates [44,64,[107][108][109]. Further outstanding questions are outlined in Box 3. ...
Meditation training is widely used to enhance mental well-being. However, a mechanistic cognitive science framework for understanding how it transforms mental processing is still needed. The act of practicing meditation involves trying to be deliberately conscious of a target content. This requires monitoring the contents of one’s consciousness and regulating them in favor of the target. I propose, this involves a metacognitive template of the target being present in consciousness, which when compared to the actual conscious content generates a “metacognitive prediction error” (MPE). MPE leads to efficient regulation of conscious content by helping fine-tune the frequency of monitoring, downstream unconscious processing, and the metacognitive template itself. The proposed framework parsimoniously explains existing neuroscientific findings on meditation and generates testable hypotheses.
... Individuals with profound and prolonged meditative practice consistently reported that, during peak states, their sense of self and time were downregulated together or even non-existent with a dissolution of bodily boundaries (Costines et al. 2021;Metzinger 2024). Some meditation experts have even reported the feeling of the disappearance of the self and being outside of time (timelessness) (Berkovich-Ohana et al. 2013;. Droit-Volet et al. (2018 have shown that all the participants' attention was captured by the meditation activity, i.e., an attention-demanding activity, so that the duration of the stimuli delivered during a meditation exercise was underestimated compared to a control exercise which also required attention. ...
In accordance with Bud (A.D.) Craig’s theories, we maintain that ascending physiological signals in their temporal dynamics are a necessary prerequisite for human time judgments. Functional neuroimaging and psychophysiological evidence have increasingly demonstrated that the subjective judgment of time is based on the physical and emotional self. The psychological literature reveals how emotions and related body feelings shape subjective time. Empirical studies of altered states of consciousness, namely meditative states, are also of prime interest as the perception of the physical state is strongly modulated and thereby affects the subjective experience of time. Our conclusion is that the sense of time is strongly embodied.
... Persistent deep psychological transformations may only be acquired with extensive, consistent practice. Various traditions using mindfulness meditation in a soteriological framework provide evidence for these types of drastic changes through first-person accounts and emerging scientific findings (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013Dor-Ziderman et al., 2016;Goleman & Davidson, 2017;Hagerty et al., 2013). A notable conceptual distinction may, therefore, lie ...
... Corroborating this finding, a subsequent neurophenomenological study in 12 long-term Theravada mindfulness meditators (averaging 11,250 hours of meditation experience) suggests that experiences of 'timelessness' and 'spacelessness' are linked to neural network changes in bodily processing, as evidenced by increased theta-band activation in the right TPJ, PCC/Prc, and cerebellum (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013). Theta-band activation is seen in states of deep relaxation (i.e., meditation and hypnosis) and has been associated with temporospatial processing, perhaps by allowing for widespread neuropsychological integration across broad areas (Hasselmo & Stern, 2014;Hunt, 2007;Vaitl et al., 2005). ...
... However, more research is needed to clearly differentiate meditation effects on interoceptive accuracy compared to perceptual acuity of sensory information and their relationship to insula activation. Studies on perceptual processing in LTMs evidenced reduced perceptual habituation and increased perceptual sensitivity to sensorial information, emphasizing mitigated top-down and increased bottom-up processing (Antonova et al., 2015;Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Fucci et al., 2018;Kasamatsu & Hirai, 1966). Generally, sensory clarity may directly enhance interoceptive awareness by improving sensory detection, discrimination, and penetration (Young, 2016). ...
Mindfulness meditation is a form of mental training rooted in ancient wisdom traditions and is focused on cultivating a non-judgmental stance toward present-moment awareness. Here, we synthesize cognitive-behavioral effects in long-term meditators (LTMs) resulting from diverse and prolonged meditation practices. Preliminary evidence suggests that LTMs exhibit increased cognitive-sensory integration and decoupling of affective processes, as demonstrated in enhanced interoceptive awareness, reduced negative affective pain perception, and more rational decision-making. Additionally, LTMs may experience more emotional neutrality, self-boundary dissolution, and less normative self-awareness. Neuroimaging findings include increased bottom-up activation, particularly within the salience network (interoception, pain, affect), and reduced connectivity between the executive (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and salience (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex) networks (reduced pain). Research also displayed reduced amygdala activation to fear (reduced negative affect), increased temporoparietal junction activation (pre-reflective experiential processes, empathy), and altered midline default-mode network activation, which is associated with emotional neutrality and pre-reflective experiential processes, such as non-ordinary states of consciousness. Methodological limitations, specifically heterogeneous predictor variables, restrict the interpretation of trait effects, temporal dynamics in cognitive processing, and the unique influences of meditative activities. These limitations indicate the need for a unified research framework and a systematic neurophenomenological investigation of advanced meditation—through the study of unfolding states, stages, and endpoints in meditative development. In summary, LTMs display a distinct neurophenomenological gestalt of mindfulness, wherein meditative expertise is reflected in altered general brain processing, potentially enhanced cognitive integration, increased cognitive flexibility and self-regulation, and heightened non-dual awareness—signifying a potentially important form of embodied cognition.
... Empirical evidence suggests that changes in the Time Sense feature are not limited to pharmacological inductions but are observed across various ASC induction types, including sensory deprivation, sensory homogenization, and meditation (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Glicksohn et al., 2017;Kübel et al., 2021). These distortions are intricately linked to the Self-Boundary and Bodily Sense features, indicating a weakening of the sense of body boundaries (Dittrich, 1998;Pahnke, 1963;Studerus et al., 2010). ...
... These distortions are intricately linked to the Self-Boundary and Bodily Sense features, indicating a weakening of the sense of body boundaries (Dittrich, 1998;Pahnke, 1963;Studerus et al., 2010). Recent research has demonstrated such weakening together with a distortion of time sense in Floatation-REST (Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy; Hruby et al., 2024) which are comparable to the weakening of body boundaries during meditation in meditation-naïve (Dambrun, 2016) and experienced meditators (Linares Gutiérrez et al., 2022) with the latter also reporting a diminished Time Sense (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Droit-Volet & Dambrun, 2019). In sum, Time Sense represents an aspect of ASCs that are heavily interrelated with Self-Boundary dissolutions and changes in Bodily Sense. ...
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the conceptual and empirical study of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) induced pharmacologically or otherwise, driven by their potential clinical applications. To draw attention to the rich history of research in this domain, we review prominent classification schemes that have been proposed to introduce systematicity in the scientific study of ASCs. The reviewed ASC classification schemes fall into three groups according to the criteria they use for categorization: (1) based on the nature, variety, and intensity of subjective experiences (state-based), including conceptual descriptions and psychometric assessments, (2) based on the technique of induction (method-based), and (3) descriptions of neurophysiological mechanisms of ASCs (neuro/physio-based). By comparing and extending existing classification schemes, we can enhance efforts to identify neural correlates of consciousness, particularly when examining mechanisms of ASC induction and the resulting subjective experience. Furthermore, an overview of what defining ASC characteristics different authors have proposed can inform future research in the conceptualization and quantification of ASC subjective effects, including the identification of those that might be relevant in clinical research. This review concludes by clustering the concepts from the state-based schemes, which are suggested for classifying ASC experiences. The resulting clusters can inspire future approaches to formulate and quantify the core phenomenology of ASC experiences to assist in basic and clinical research.
... Through this process, mindfulness meditators could disengage from anticipatory processes and report a slower passage of time (Kabat-Zinn, 2003;Wittmann et al., 2015). In a meditative state, sensitivity towards time passage increases such that it could even evoke 'timelessness' (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Droit-Volet et al., 2015). The present study specifically assesses whether the link between mindfulness as a trait and materialistic value could be mediated by time passage. ...
Since the advent of Greek philosophy, the notion that time is a more valuable resource than money has gained traction due to its perceived contrast with materialistic viewpoints. In the current study (N = 418 Indonesian undergraduates, 70.3% female, mean age 21.41 years old), we explored the extent to which the speed of time passage (i.e., time pressure and time expansion) could be an underlying mechanism between the propensity to be mindful and the personal value system of materialism. We found that trait mindfulness was associated with lower materialistic values through lower appraisal of time pressure but not through time expansion. This result was independent of the participant’s level of trait self-control, which is often intertwined with studies regarding mindfulness and time passage. By not rushing to overcome the discomfort from time pressure, mindful individuals are more capable of recognizing that materialistic desires are fleeting wants that do not necessitate action.
... The research gap stems from clinical concerns for contraindications when offering mindfulness to those with PTSD-D (Forner, 2019;Zerubavel and Messman-Moore, 2015). As mindfulness processes such as interoception and decentering can become negative after a certain degree of exposure (Britton, 2019), mindfulness meditation can lead to adverse experiences such as depersonalization, derealization, and alterations in sense of self, time, space, and body (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Kohls et al., 2019;Lindahl et al., 2017;Pickering, 2019). Lack of discussion around dissociation in common mindfulness teachings have further resulted in some mindfulness trainings that push patients outside their window of tolerance (Siegel, 2012;Treleaven and Britton, 2018). ...
Approximately 15–30 % of individuals diagnosed with PTSD experience high levels of dissociation, a condition categorized in the DSM-V as a dissociative subtype of PTSD (PTSD-D). Despite the rising number of studies supporting mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for the treatment of PTSD, literature on mindfulness and dissociation remains scarce and discording. While best practices for offering mindfulness for dissociative patients remain unclear, integrating choice points into MBIs may be aligned with trauma-informed principles and effective in countering loss of self-agency associated with trauma. In this article, we present a case study from a larger randomized controlled trial of an individual with PTSD-D who successfully completed an 8-week MBI while displaying active dissociation symptoms throughout the group. Follow-up interviews with stakeholders in the patient’s care as well as pre-and post-intervention assessments indicate that the patient had a positive experience with the mindfulness training and improved self-regulation. Analysis of the case study suggests that the mindfulness training may have been safe and effective for this patient due to the integration of choice points throughout the mindfulness training and promotion of structural safety. We expand on this by further discussing six influencing factors that contributed to the outcome of the case study and can serve as a reference for clinicians, researchers, and instructors who wish to offer MBIs safely to patients with PTSD-D.
... For example, studies have shown that expert meditators reported changes in their sense of body ownership, agency, and self-location . They tend to perceive their body as autonomous and functioning independently of their will, experience a decrease in identification with their body, and express difficulty in locating themselves (Ataria et al., 2015;Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Dambrun et al., 2023;Dor-Ziderman et al., 2016). This profound alteration of bodily consciousness is characterized by a self-loss associated with full present-moment attention, as well as alterations in the sense of time and space (i.e., timelessness and spacelessness), and sometimes states of nondual awareness where the distinction between self and other is dissolved Garland et al., 2022;Lindström et al., 2022). ...
In this paper, we present a study comprising two distinct stages to examine the extent to which metacognitive processes of decentering facilitate the emergence of self-transcendence experiences in everyday life (i.e., the frequency of self-transcendent emotions, flow proneness, and adopting an interconnected identity). In the course of conducting this research, the first stage ( N = 374) focused on assessing the structure and validity of the French version of the Metacognitive Processes of Decentering Scale (MPoD-t). Building on this, the second stage ( N = 294) examined the potential relationship between meditative practices and psychological decentering processes (i.e., meta-awareness, (dis)identification with internal experiences, and (non)reactivity to thought content) and explored whether these mechanisms explain the association between meditative practices and the experience of self-transcendent states. Overall, the results demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties of the French version of the MPoD and provided enhanced insights into the distinct mediating roles played by various decentering components in the manifestation of self-transcendence experiences in daily life. Indeed, the findings revealed that the relationship between practice and the occurrence of self-transcendent emotions or flow was mediated by the meta-awareness component, while the association between practice and the development of an interconnected identity was explained by the (dis)identification with internal experiences component. The implications of these findings are discussed.
... MM is a meditative practice commonly described as paying attention in an open, nonconceptual, and nonjudgmental way, focusing on bodily sensations and mental events with the prospect of cultivating equanimity and awareness [16]. Behavioral and neuroimaging studies showed how MM can shape self and self-other experiences in the cognitive domain, for instance, by intensifying empathy, compassion, and altruism (e.g., [17,18]), reducing self-referential activity [19][20][21][22], and promoting self-other connectedness [23][24][25][26][27][28], providing a promising model for addressing growing public health issues associated with loneliness and isolation [29][30][31]. However, evidence regarding the relationship between mindfulness and the bodily self is much scarcer, with a prevalence of phenomenological studies that reported how mindfulness meditation may alter the perception of the boundaries between the body and the surrounding world [19,24,32]. ...
... Behavioral and neuroimaging studies showed how MM can shape self and self-other experiences in the cognitive domain, for instance, by intensifying empathy, compassion, and altruism (e.g., [17,18]), reducing self-referential activity [19][20][21][22], and promoting self-other connectedness [23][24][25][26][27][28], providing a promising model for addressing growing public health issues associated with loneliness and isolation [29][30][31]. However, evidence regarding the relationship between mindfulness and the bodily self is much scarcer, with a prevalence of phenomenological studies that reported how mindfulness meditation may alter the perception of the boundaries between the body and the surrounding world [19,24,32]. Mindfulness meditators have reported changes in their sense of self during meditation sessions in terms of (a) diminished sense of boundaries between them and the environment, (b) self-representation extended beyond the body to include stimuli in the external world, and (c) a total disappearing of the boundaries that separate the self vs. non-self. ...
... Regarding the sharpness of PPS boundaries, as far as we know, no study has investigated whether it is modified by MM. However, based on phenomenological reports on the so-called sense of boundaries reported by Lindahl and Britton [24] (see also [19,32]), we hypothesize that FAM might shallow the PPS boundaries so that the transition from PPS to extra-personal space may be less sharp, in the sense that those boundaries would tend to fading or relaxing. ...
Peripersonal space (PPS) is a dynamic multisensory representation of the space around the body, influenced by internal and external sensory information. The malleability of PPS boundaries, as evidenced by their expansion after tool use or modulation through social interactions, positions PPS as a crucial element in understanding the subjective experiences of self and otherness. Building on the existing literature highlighting both the cognitive and bodily effects of mindfulness meditation, this study proposes a novel approach by employing focused-attention meditation (FAM) and a multisensory audio–tactile task to assess PPS in both the extension and sharpness of its boundaries. The research hypothesis posits that FAM, which emphasizes heightened attention to bodily sensations and interoception, may reduce the extension of PPS and make its boundaries less sharp. We enrolled 26 non-meditators who underwent a repeated measure design in which they completed the PPS task before and after a 15-min FAM induction. We found a significant reduction in the sharpness of PPS boundaries but no significant reduction in PPS extension. These results provide novel insights into the immediate effects of FAM on PPS, potentially shedding light on the modulation of self–other representations in both cognitive and bodily domains. Indeed, our findings could have implications for understanding the intricate relationship between mindfulness practices and the subjective experience of self within spatial contexts.
... Note that our aim here is not to imply that one is more important than the other, just that there are nuanced differences that may help serve ongoing research into these topics and avoid further conflations currently common in the scientific literature. In fact, the experiential states labeled as 'emptiness', 'pure presence', 'stillness', 'silence', 'thoughtless awareness', and so on (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Hinterberger et al., 2014), might point to transitionary states between the insight into emptiness and subsequent cessations of consciousness. Though caution needs to be maintained as these experiential states may even strengthen one's belief in another reality, separate from their current experience (McGovern et al., 2023). ...
... Neuroscientific research on the impact of nothingness and no-thingness is still in its early stages. To the best of our knowledge, there is no research exclusive to the neurophysiological correlates of emptiness in the way we have defined it (but see Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2013;Hinterberger et al., 2014). Unlike altered states of consciousness, emptiness is purely an insight attainment, and poses many challenges to be studied in a controlled setting. ...
Contemplative practices have been shown to elicit a range of experiences and insights often referred to as "nothingness". However, these encounters are frequently conflated and remain undifferentiated. Here we address this ambiguity and provide a nuanced understanding of two such events: 1) emptiness (lack of inherent existence in experience, i.e., no-thingness) and 2) cessation (‘cut’ or absence in the stream of consciousness, i.e., nothingness). We synthesize insights from Buddhist literature and empirical research, investigating the relationship between these ‘nothingness’ phenomena, their transformative effects, and neural correlates. We also examine multiple pathways that may lead to cessation and consider potential cognitive models underlying these experiences using the active inference framework. Finally, we discuss the relationship between ‘nothingness’ events and cessation of suffering and enduring equanimity, setting the stage for further development in this field. Our unique contributions involve juxtaposing various experiences of “void, oneness, non-dual awareness, pure consciousness” with insights into “emptiness and cessation”, and analyzing their potential implications for alleviating suffering.
... Moreover, individuals under the influence of psychedelics or during meditation practices do not only report OBEs and unusual bodily experiences [37,38,51,52,[154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162] but also a vanishing, fading or numbness of bodily sensations that may occur while individuals are still aware of this fact [51-53, 158-160, 162, 163]. This can be compared to episodes where individuals retain "bodily awareness" during sleep. ...
Out-of body experiences (OBEs) are characterized by the subjective experience of being located outside the physical body. Evidence supports that OBEs triggered by electrical stimulation and epileptic seizures are associated with disrupted brain activity in a distributed network centred at the temporo-parietal junction and the resulting multisensory disruption of body representation. However, little is known about the neurophysiology of spontaneous OBEs, which are often reported by healthy individuals as occurring during states of reduced vigilance, particularly in proximity to or during sleep (sleep-related OBEs). A sleep phenomenon that has been linked to this particular kind of OBE is lucid dreaming, i.e., the realization of being in a dream state. Thus, both lucid dreams and sleep-related OBEs are characterized by the conscious awareness of not being in a standard waking state at the moment of the experience. In this paper, we review the current state of research on sleep-related OBEs and hypothesize that these phenomena, along with certain types of lucid dreams, are more likely to occur during direct transitions from wakefulness to REM sleep (sleep-onset REM periods). Based on this hypothesis, we propose a new conceptual model that potentially describes the relationship between OBEs and sleep states. The model sheds light on the phenomenological differences between sleep-related OBEs and similar states of consciousness, such as lucid dreaming and sleep paralysis, and explores the potential polysomnographic features underlying sleep-related OBEs. Subsequently, we apply the predictive coding framework to suggest that sleep-related OBEs form part of a broader spectrum of experiences, proposing a connecting link between OBEs occurring in a sleep state and OBEs reported during wakefulness. We conclude by discussing experimental options for testing this model.
