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Recently reported prevalences of myopia in primary school children vary greatly in different regions of the world. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of refractive errors in an unselected urban population of young primary school children in eastern Sydney, Australia, between 1998 and 2004, for comparison with our previously published data...
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Context 1
... comparison, the epidemiology of refractive error for young Australian school children is relatively well docu- mented and presents a very different profile. A number of studies were carried out in the early 1970s and the 1980s on relatively large groups of unselected primary school children from the socio-economic extremes (generally aged 5 to 12 years), and indicated a prevalence of myopia ranging from approximately 3% to 13% (see Table 1) [25][26][27][28][29]. Two of those early studies investigated children largely from underprivileged, rural, families [26,27], and the other was of children from several, middle to upper socio-economic class private schools [25]. One smaller study was carried out in the mid 1980s on children from a representative selection of government schools in Bris- bane [29], and would therefore have investigated children from a broader range of backgrounds. ...
Citations
... This method is commonly used in children with strong accommodative abilities. Inadequate controlling accommodation can adversely affect the results in the measurement of refractive errors in children [9]. Measuring the refractive state under cycloplegia yields reliable results but may induce adverse reactions in subjects, including an extended period of blurred vision, dilated pupils, and photophobia [10]. ...
Background To evaluate the effectiveness of optical fogging in reducing overestimation of myopia using an open-field auto-refractor and partial coherence interferometry. METHODS The study recruited 144 young adults with an age range of 17-23 years. Binocular refractive error and biometry parameters were measured using an open automatic refractor and partial coherence interferometry at baseline, under optical fogging, and cycloplegia conditions. The effectiveness of optical fogging in reducing overestimation of myopia was evaluated by comparing the results with cycloplegic refraction. RESULTS A total of 284 eyes were included in the analysis with a mean spherical equivalent (SE) of -3.85 ± 2.56D at baseline. When analyzed the results separately for the overestimation of myopia group and the control group, 28.9% of eyes were classified into the myopia overestimation group. In eyes with overestimation of myopia and overall, optical fogging induced a relaxation in accommodation of 0.28 ± 0.37D and 0.07 ± 0.34D, respectively, compared to the baseline (p for all<0.001); For lens thickness, compared to baseline, changed by 0.02 ± 0.24mm in overestimation of myopia eyes and 0.004 ± 0.20mm in the whole eyes (p for all >0.05). In comparison with the cycloplegic condition, the efficacy of optical fogging in reducing overestimation of myopia is 36.84% and 21.88%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Optical fogging is an effective method to reduce the overestimation of myopia in young adults. It is recommended to follow the standards for optical fogging during subjective refraction in adults to minimize the impact of myopia overestimation on prescriptions.
... The prevalence of myopia in certain 7 regions such as East Asian regions, is high. Myopia has dramatically increased in certain urbanized 8 9 Asian regions, such as Singapore and Taiwan, but 10 not in Australia, and only weakly in the United 11 States. ...
Objective: Kabwe District is largely an urban town in the Central Province of Zambia. We aimed to determine the prevalence of refractive errors and visual impairment in primary and secondary school learners in this District. Method: A cross-sectional survey of 41 primary and secondary schools in Kabwe District. The examination included visual acuity (VA) testing, cycloplegic retinoscopy with subjective refinement if indicated, ocular motility testing and anterior segment and fundus examinations in visually impaired children. Results: There was an estimated total of 32,971 learners who were eligible to participate of which 23,915 (72.5%) were enrolled into the survey. Of the 2,424 learners examined by the mobile ophthalmic team, 418 were refracted representing 17.2 %. Of the 418 learners refracted, 359 were diagnosed with refractive errors and prescribed spectacles. The mean spherical equivalent in the right eyes was 0.57 diopter (D) (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.49 - 0.75), and the mean spherical equivalent in the left eyes was 0.59 (95% CI, 0.50 - 0.71). The prevalence of hyperopia was 0.9% (95% CI, 0.4 - 1.3; 207 subjects), and the prevalence of myopia was 0.5% (95% CI, 0.1-1.0; 119 subjects). The majority of learners (98.3%; 95% CI, 97.0 -99.0) had normal unaided binocular VA (at least 6/9 in their better eye). The overall prevalence of any visual impairment (presenting VA 6/9 in the better eye) was 1.7% (95% CI, 1.0 -2.5; 418 subjects) and the overall refractive error prevalence was 1.5% (95% CI, 1.0 -2.3; 359 subjects). In multivariate logistic regression analysis, age (P 0.001) was a significant predictor and female gender (P 0.06) was a borderline significant predictor of the presence of any visual impairment. Conclusions: Visual impairment is not a public health concern in this school-aged population in Kabwe District. The prevalence of uncorrected significant refractive errors among learners is not too high to justify a regular school eye screening programme in schools in Kabwe District.
... A study of Turkey revealed that the decrease of SER in 2020 compared to the 2019 and 2018 years was significantly [38]. The younger trend of myopia onset also occurred in other Asian countries, such as Japan [39] and India [40], but it was not as obvious in Australia [41,42] and Norway [43]. This phenomenon indicated that the prevalence of myopia was related to the different education and living conditions of various countries. ...
Purpose
The aim of this study was to investigate the change of myopic prevalence in students with different demographic characteristics before and after the COVID-19 pandemic in Suqian, China.
Methods
A retrospective, cross-sectional study was conducted. Student data from 52 schools in 2019 and 2020 were collected from the electronic medical records database through cluster sampling. Ophthalmic examinations were conducted on students from September to December in 2019 and 2020. Measurements of uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) and noncycloplegic autorefraction were included to obtain the spherical equivalent refraction (SER) and prevalence of myopia. The difference in the rate of myopia and SER of students ages 6 to 18 with various demographic characteristics was compared between the two years.
Results
Records from 118,479 students in 2019 and the 121,881 students in 2020 were obtained. In 2019 and 2020, the prevalence of overall myopia increased from 43.1% to 48.9% (5.8 percentage point), and a substantial shift in myopic rate occurred in grades 4 to 6 (6.9 percentage point). The change in the prevalence of myopia in girls (5.9 percentage point) was approximately equal to that in boys (5.8 percentage point) and it was more common in rural students (5.9 percentage point) than in urban students (5.1 percentage point). The prevalence of low myopia increased more in children, and the prevalence of moderate myopia increased more in adolescents. The mean spherical equivalent refraction (SER) (-1.34±2.03 D) was lower in 2020 than in 2019 (-1.16±1.92 D), while SER decreased mainly at ages 7 to 15. The SER presented myopic status at the age of 9 (-0.55±1.26 D in 2019, -0.71±1.42 D in 2020), and attained moderate myopia at the age of 15 (-3.06±2.41 D in 2019, -3.22±2.40 D in 2020).
Conclusions
After the COVID-19 pandemic, myopia increased in this population with variable rates of increase in different demographic groups. The change of myopia in children was comparatively greater than that in adolescents. Therefore, we should take measures to prevent and control the development of myopia after the COVID-19 pandemic, especially for younger students.
... 7,8 In South Korea, an even higher prevalence of 96.5% was found in 19-year-old male conscripts. 9 There have been several cross-sectional studies of prevalence of myopia in school-aged children, [10][11][12][13][14][15] but few longitudinal studies on the incidence and progression of myopia in China. Wang et al. 16 reported annual incidence of myopia to be 20% from grade 1 to grade 6 and to be 30% from grade 7 to grade 9. ...
Purpose:
To determine the annual incidences and rates of progression of myopia and high myopia in Chinese schoolchildren from grade 1 to grade 6 and explore the possible cause-specific risk factors for myopia.
Methods:
From 11 randomly selected primary schools in Anyang city, central China, 2835 grade 1 students were examined with annual follow ups for 5 years. Students were invited to undergo a comprehensive examination, including cycloplegic autorefraction, ocular biometry, and standardized questionnaires.
Results:
The mean spherical equivalent refraction decreased substantially from +0.94 ± 1.03 diopter (D) in grade 1 to -1.37 ± 2.08 D in grade 6, with rapid annual myopic shifts, especially for students in grades 3 through 6 (-0.51 to -0.59 D). The prevalence of myopia increased substantially, with the yearly incidence of myopia increasing from 7.8% in grade 1 and 2 to 25.3% in grades 5 and 6, and the incidence of high myopia increased from 0.1% to 1.0%. The 5-year incidence of myopia was lowest among children who has a baseline spherical equivalent refraction of greater than +2.00 D (4.4%), and increased to nearly 92.0% among children whose baseline spherical equivalent refraction was 0.00 to -0.50 D. The incidence of myopia was higher in children who had less hyperopic baseline refraction, two myopic parents, longer axial length, deeper anterior chamber, higher axial length-corneal radius of curvature ratio, and thinner lenses.
Conclusions:
Both the annual incidence and progression rates of myopia and high myopia were high in Chinese schoolchildren, especially after grade 3. Hyperopic refraction of children should be monitored before primary school as hyperopia reserve to prevent the onset of myopia and high myopia.
... There is clear evidence for a high and increasing prevalence of myopia in East Asia [3][4][5][6][7][8], apparently driven by increasing educational pressures and urbanization [9][10][11][12][13]. The absolute prevalence of myopia in Australia is much lower than in East Asian [14][15][16], United States [13] and Western Europe [17][18][19][20]. However, the evidence for an increasing prevalence of myopia in Australia is more questionable, due to the limited number of cross-sectional studies over time and the confounding effects of age-related emmetropization [21]. ...
... French et al. [14] found that the prevalence of myopia in children aged 12 years living in Sydney over a 6-year period (from 2004-2005 to 2009-2011) increased from 4.4% to 8.4% in Caucasian and from 38.5% to 42.7% in East Asian children, respectively. Conversely, Junghans et al. [16] found little evidence of an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children aged 4-12 over a 30-year period, although they mention that only 8.8% of their cohort comprised Asian children. ...
... For this study myopia was defined [1,3,15,16] as SER equal to or more minus than -0.50D, and hyperopia as SER greater than +0.50D. Thus, emmetropia was defined as SER in the range -0.49 to +0.50D. ...
Purpose
Myopia prevalence is influenced by environmental factors including heritability and social disadvantage. The current prevalence of myopia among disadvantaged school children in Australia has not been reported. Therefore, this study analyses refractive data for children from rural and outer suburban areas.
Methods
The records of 4,365 children aged 6–15 visiting a city-based government-school respite care center during the years 2014/2016/2018 were analyzed for right eye non-cycloplegic spherical equivalent refraction (SER). The prevalence of myopia (SER≤-0.50D) was compared with historical data.
Results
The prevalence of myopia was 3.5%, 4.4% and 4.3% in 2014, 2016 and 2018, respectively. The prevalence of myopia increased with age (P<0.0001), but was not related to sex or year of testing (all P >0.05). The overall mean SER was 0.89±0.86D, 0.62±0.89D and 0.56±0.95 in 2014, 2016 and 2018, respectively. Mean SER was associated with year of testing, age (all P <0.0001) and sex (P = 0.03). Mean SER decreased slightly from 2014 to 2018 and demonstrated a significant shift towards less hyperopia with increasing age. Mean SER of females was higher than that of males and decreased faster than in males with age (P interaction = 0.03).
Conclusions
Myopia prevalence increased with age. The mean SER decreased slightly from 2014 to 2018. Sex differences in the rate of change with age was observed. Compared with 40 years ago, the prevalence of myopia has doubled, but it remains significantly lower than in school children of a similar age living in established urban areas that are regarded as having a higher socioeconomic status.
... In Iraq, the prevalence of refractive errors among schoolchildren has been studied in a limited number of studies; in Amara city was (47%) [ 7] , in Thiqar governorate was (35%) [ 8] , in Erbil governorate was (25%) [ 9] , and in Massif Kurdistan was (23.33%) [ 10] . In other studies around the world, refractive errors prevalence among children were; (26.67%) in Iran [ 11] , (18.6%) in Saudi Arabia [ 12] , (22.1%) in Egypt [ 13] , (20.9%) in India [ 14] , (6.3%) in Ethiopia [ 1] , (12.8%) in China [ 15] , (46.8%) in Australia [ 16] , and (79 %) in the Unites States [ 17] . This wide variation in the results could be explained by; the racial and genetic factors of the different countries [ 18] , the difference in the sampling methods and by the sample size. ...
... Hyperopia is common in children, with prevalence data ranging between 0.8-34 per cent, depending on the definition of hyperopia, assessment technique, age and ethnic background of the various study populations. [68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] Numerous studies have reported that uncorrected hyperopia is associated with poorer performance on academic-related outcome measures such as reading ability, educational or academic achievement test outcomes and literacy scores. 27,28,30,36,40,45,47 It has been suggested that the impact of uncorrected hyperopia on these outcomes may be because the accommodative-vergence demand required to sustain clear focus during near tasks results in symptoms such as asthenopia, headaches, and intermittent blurring of print. ...
The role of visual acuity and refractive errors in the academic performance of children is controversial due to the variable quality of the research in this area and the mixed findings reported. This review aims to provide clarity by reviewing and critiquing relevant peer‐reviewed publications and also summarises what is known regarding the visual demands of modern classroom environments. The outcomes of this review suggest that while a number of studies have investigated the role of vision in relation to children's academic performances, the veracity of the evidence obtained from the majority of these studies is undermined by methodological limitations. Comparisons between studies are constrained by differences in experimental designs, instrumentation and sample characteristics. Despite these limitations, the weight of evidence suggests there is an association between academic performance and both visual acuity and refractive error in children. However, well‐designed experimental studies are necessary to further understand the relationship between these parameters.
... Our study included a group of children between 5 and 7 years of age, of which 18% were myopic in 2016 and 2017. erefore, it has been concluded that figures of myopia prevalence in our sample of children in Spain are similar to that of Australia (14.02%) [21], Central Asia (17%), Andean Latin America (20.5%), and Tropical Latin America (14.5%) [6]. Contrasting, figures of prevalence are higher in Pakistan (36.5%) [22] and in Saudi Arabia (53.71%) [23]. ...
Objective:
To analyse the prevalence of myopia among a sample of more than 6000 children in Spain as well as to determine the impact of risk factors in its progression.
Methodology:
A total of 6,152 children aged from 5 to 7 were examined. The participants underwent an eye examination that included visual acuity, refraction without cycloplegia, and tests of accommodative and binocular function. In addition, a questionnaire regarding their lifestyle, family history, and geographical data was carried out. Finally, data were analysed using the SPSS version 25 program.
Results:
The prevalence of myopia in the sample of children studied has increased from 17% in 2016 to 20% in 2017. Likewise, the number of children with high myopia has also increased, from 1.7% in 2016 to 3.6% in 2017. 43.3% of the participants spent more than 3 hours a day doing near activities, and 48.9% of this group spent more than 50% of this time using electronic devices. In addition, only 9.7% spent more than 2.5 hours outdoors each day.
Conclusion:
Myopia prevalence appears to be increasing in Spain. Lifestyle factors appear to be increasing the risk of myopia.
... 33 The finding is also agree with that of India, where myopia and astigmatism were found to be significantly associated with increase in age, while hyperopia was not associated with age. 34 Other studies in Australia, 30 Malay (East Malaysia) 29 and Gombak District from Malaysia, 35 revealed a positive association between refractive errors and age group. Whereas, other researchers from Karachi 36 and Kolkata 37 found no association between refractive error and age in children. ...
INTRODUCTION: Refractive error may appear through childhood and adolescent. If refractive error left untreated it can result
in amblyopia and strabismus. Visual impairment has significant implication for the affected child and family in terms of education, future employment and personal and social welfare throughout life.
OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of refractive errors among a sample of children from two primary schools
in Al-Rusafa district in Baghdad. And to detect some factors that may be associated with refractive errors.
METHODS: A cross sectional study was carried at two primary schools in Baghdad from 15 February to 1 April 2009. The two primary schools were selected conveniently. All students were included in this study apart from those with eye infections ,traumatic
eye disease. Snellen’s chart was used to assess visual acuity and retinoscope was used to detect the type of refractive errors for
those with abnormal acuity. .
RESULTS: eight hundred sixty students from two primary schools were participated, and 732 were examined (85%). The prevalence of refractive errors (ametropia) was 7%. The prevalence of myopia was (5.32%), hyperopia was (1.09%), and astigmatism
was (0.68%), while the rest (92.91%) were normal (emmetropia).Twenty-four (3.2%) students wore glasses on the day of examination. These students with glasses had uncorrected visual acuity equal or less than 6/12. Among students who had refractive
errors, 46% of them were wearing corrective lenses, while more than half of them with uncorrected refractive error.
CONCLUSION: The prevalence of refractive errors in primary school children of Baghdad was 7%. Factors that were found to
be associated with refractive errors in Baghdad primary school children were age, reading hours per day, computer usage,
siblings’ history of wearing glasses. .
Key words: Primary schools, refractive errors, myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism
... In Iraq, the prevalence of refractive errors among schoolchildren has been studied in a limited number of studies; in Amara city was (47%) [7] , in Thiqar governorate was (35%) [8] , in Erbil governorate was (25%) [9] , and in Massif Kurdistan was (23.33%) [10] . In other studies around the world, refractive errors prevalence among children were; (26.67%) in Iran [11] , (18.6%) in Saudi Arabia [12] , (22.1%) in Egypt [13] , (20.9%) in India [14] , (6.3%) in Ethiopia [1] , (12.8%) in China [15] , (46.8%) in Australia [16] , and (79 %) in the Unites States [17] . This wide variation in the results could be explained by; the racial and genetic factors of the different countries [18] , the difference in the sampling methods and by the sample size. ...
Purpose: To investigate the association between concomitant esotropia and exotropia and refractive error among preschool children under age of 6 years in the city of Fallujah in western Iraq.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 253 strabismic patients participated. After obtaining informed written consents, children underwent full ophthalmic examination, with uncorrected and corrected visual acuity and cycloplegic refraction. Strabismus was defined as; inward deviation esotropia and outward deviation exotropia of 10 or more prism dioptres.
Results: Of these 253 cases, 14 were excluded because of poor cooperation, older age and missed information. Prevalence of esotropia and exotropia were 81.2% and 18.8% respectively. There was a higher prevalence of esotropia in boys and exotropia in female (p = 0.180). Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed a significant relation between refractive error and strabismus (p = 0.268). The prevalence of amblyopia among strabismic cases was 57.3%.
Conclusion: This study found a strong association between refractive error and horizontal strabismus among the preschool children in Fallujah in west of Iraq. These results can help in setting a guideline on early correction of refractive errors to prevent strabismus and amblyopia development
