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Precise visiting period of E. kamerunicus and G. hybridus on male and female inflorescences of E. guineensis (A) and E. oleifera Taisha and E. oleifera Coari (B). Average (6SEM) of the total number of insects captured hourly or per 20-min interval per inflorescence. n ¼ number of inflorescences sampled.
Source publication
The pollination of two oil palm species, Elaeis guineensis Jacquin and Elaeis oleifera Cortés (Arecales: Arecaceae), depends on a mutualistic relation with insects, which use male inflorescences as a brood site, and visits female inflorescences lured by the emitted odor, which is similar to that of males. Although the activity of visiting the inflo...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... from 6 to 8 h presenting no differences. The insect visits occurred in the same range of time on inflorescences of both sexes, peaking between the third and the sixth h after sunrise (83% of total insects) for male inflorescences and between the fourth and the sev- enth hours after sunrise (87% of total insects) for female inflorescen- ces ( Fig. 2A). More insects were trapped on male inflorescences although mean number of captures were not significantly different between the inflorescences of the two sexes (t ¼ 1.99; P ¼ ...
Context 2
... the 29,476 G. hybridus captured on E. oleifera Taisha, 12,908 and 16,568 insects were on 10 female and 9 male inflores- cences, respectively. All 7,536 G. hybridus captured on E. oleifera Coari were on 11 female inflorescences because no male inflorescen- ces were found at the time of the study (Fig. 2B). The average num- ber of G. hybridus individuals captured on inflorescences varied significantly between each 20-min interval of trapping for E. oleifera Taisha male (Q ¼ 39.7; P < 0.01) and female inflorescences (Q ¼ 43.3; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B) and for E. oleifera Coari female inflor- escences (Q ¼ 46.2; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B). Precise ...
Context 3
... were on 11 female inflorescences because no male inflorescen- ces were found at the time of the study (Fig. 2B). The average num- ber of G. hybridus individuals captured on inflorescences varied significantly between each 20-min interval of trapping for E. oleifera Taisha male (Q ¼ 39.7; P < 0.01) and female inflorescences (Q ¼ 43.3; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B) and for E. oleifera Coari female inflor- escences (Q ¼ 46.2; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B). Precise timing of G. hybridus activity was similar on both E. oleifera Taisha and E. oleifera Coari, with visits concentrated in a 1-h interval between 20 min before and 40 min after sunset (Fig. 2B). The visits in this interval represented 92.8 and 94.8% ...
Context 4
... at the time of the study (Fig. 2B). The average num- ber of G. hybridus individuals captured on inflorescences varied significantly between each 20-min interval of trapping for E. oleifera Taisha male (Q ¼ 39.7; P < 0.01) and female inflorescences (Q ¼ 43.3; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B) and for E. oleifera Coari female inflor- escences (Q ¼ 46.2; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B). Precise timing of G. hybridus activity was similar on both E. oleifera Taisha and E. oleifera Coari, with visits concentrated in a 1-h interval between 20 min before and 40 min after sunset (Fig. 2B). The visits in this interval represented 92.8 and 94.8% of total catches on male and female E. oleifera Taisha inflorescences, ...
Context 5
... (Q ¼ 39.7; P < 0.01) and female inflorescences (Q ¼ 43.3; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B) and for E. oleifera Coari female inflor- escences (Q ¼ 46.2; P < 0.01; Fig. 2B). Precise timing of G. hybridus activity was similar on both E. oleifera Taisha and E. oleifera Coari, with visits concentrated in a 1-h interval between 20 min before and 40 min after sunset (Fig. 2B). The visits in this interval represented 92.8 and 94.8% of total catches on male and female E. oleifera Taisha inflorescences, respectively, and 92.4% on E. oleifera Coari female inflorescences. The culmination of insect activity was per- fectly synchronized on the two sexes of inflorescence of E. oleifera Taisha, with activity peaking ...
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Citations
... (Arecaceae), is an example of a crop that relies heavily on arthropod pollinators for production, but within which it is difficult to survey flowervisitors reliably. Methods employed currently include direct observations (Mayfield, 2005;Syed, 1979), sampling of oil palm inflorescences by cutting, bagging and collecting arthropods (Aisagbonhi et al., 2004), and setting sticky traps (Dhileepan, 1994;Yue et al., 2015) or flight interception traps above or near inflorescences (Auffray et al., 2017;Beaudoin-Ollivier et al., 2017). However, all these methods require direct access to inflorescences, which can be difficult due to the height of oil palms, which can reach over 15 m (Corley & Tinker, 2003), and the staggered timing of individual oil palms flowering (12-14 times per year for up to 1 week), meaning that only a subset of palms are in flower at any given time (Corley & Tinker, 2003). ...
Monitoring pollinating arthropods in crop systems can provide important information about pollinator populations and potential yield but can be hampered by accessibility to flowers in some systems, or by the timing of flowering and pollinator visits. This is particularly the case in oil palm, the world's leading source of vegetable oil, where flowering is discontinuous, inflorescences are sometimes many metres off the ground, and pollination is largely dependent on a single insect species—the specialist weevil, Elaeidobius kamerunicus Faust (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). We used oil palm as a case study system to trial a new trap design to selectively survey flower‐visitors of insect‐pollinated crops. The trap consisted of a pan trap baited with half a male oil palm inflorescence. To assess effectiveness of the trap across different environments, we set pairs of baited and non‐baited control pan traps in a variety of habitats in industrial oil palm plantations in Riau, Indonesia. We identified all arthropods collected to order level, with ants separated from other Hymenoptera owing to their distinct ecology, and E. kamerunicus identified to species level. We found a higher abundance of arthropods trapped by baited versus unbaited traps across all habitat types and across all taxa except Orthoptera, with the greatest differences found in E. kamerunicus , non‐ E. kamerunicus Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. The age of inflorescences used in baited traps affected abundances of certain taxa, with 8% reduction in E. kamerunicus abundance, 1% reduction in other Coleoptera and 4% reduction in Lepidoptera with each 1% increase in inflorescence openness beyond 40% open. Most taxa were found in higher numbers in the baited traps. The baited pan traps worked across a range of habitats and present an effective and inexpensive survey method for assessing populations of flower‐visiting arthropods and could collect a wider range of flower‐visitors than traps baited with more specific attractants, such as estragole, a volatile component emitted by oil palm inflorescences. Similar approaches could be trialled in other insect‐pollinated crops.
... Pada produksi benih kelapa sawit dengan tujuan memperbanyak bahan tanam, penyerbukan dibantu oleh polinator (assisted pollination), sedangkan pada perkebunan komersial dengan tanaman menghasilkan tandan buah untuk kepentingan industri, penyerbukan yang terjadi merupakan pernyerbukan terbuka (open pollination) oleh serangga penyerbuk. Menurut Auffray et al. (2017), penyerbukan terbuka pada kelapa sawit bergantung pada hubungan mutualisme dengan serangga penyerbuk Elaeidobius kamerunicus. Li et al. (2019) menambahkan, semakin banyak populasi polinator akan meningkatkan persentase keberhasilan penyerbukan yang pada akhirnya meningkatkan produksi buah dan atau benih. ...
Self Incompatibility (SI) merupakan bentuk mekanisme genetik yang mencegah penyerbukan sendiri dan mendorong terjadinya penyerbukan silang pada tanaman. Dalam mekanisme SI, terjadi penolakan serbuk sari yang berasal dari tanaman yang sama dengan mencegah hidrasi serbuk sari setelah kontak dengan permukaan stigma. Terdapat 2 tipe SI pada tanaman, yaitu heteromorphic self incompatibility (HetSI) dan homormorphic self incompatibility (HomSI). HetSI disebabkan karena tanaman memiliki tipe bunga yang berbeda secara morfologis, sementara HomSI terjadi ketika tanaman memiliki bunga yang serupa secara morfologis, namun tetap terdapat mekanisme SI yang diatur pada tingkat genetik. SI homomorfik juga dapat dibedakan menjadi 2 tipe berdasarkan penentu genetik inkompatibilitas dari polen, yaitu Gametophytic Self Incompatibility (GSI) dan Sporophytic Self Incompatibility (SSI). Pada GSI, mekanisme SI dikontrol oleh genotipe serbuk sari itu sendiri yang bersifat haploid, sedangkan pada SSI ditentukan oleh genotipe jaringan dari tanaman (sporofit) yang memproduksi serbuk sari tersebut dan bersifat diploid. Kedua tipe SI ini diatur oleh S-locus dengan mekanisme yang berbeda. Pada tanaman kelapa sawit tanpa biji, ditemukan adanya S-RNAse yang berperan dalam degradasi tabung serbuk sari, SRK (S-receptor kinase), dan SLG (S-locus glikoprotein) yang merupakan gen pengatur mekanisme HomSI pada beberapa tanaman. Keberadaan S-RNAse dan gen-gen pada S-locus tersebut menimbulkan kemungkinan adanya mekanisme SI pada kelapa sawit yang menghasilkan buah tanpa biji. Disamping itu, terdapat mekanisme stenospermy dan abnormalitas jaringan endosperma yang diduga menghasilkan buah dengan biji yang steril (tanpa embrio) pada kelapa sawit. Namun belum dapat dipastikan apakah keduanya merupakan bagian dari respon SI atau bukan.
... Firstly, the yellow sticky trap was mounted on top of an iron mesh wire of a similar size. The sampling using a sticky trap has been reported in several studies (Auffray et al. 2017;Beaudoin-Ollivier et al. 2017;Yue et al. 2015). The iron mesh was then placed on the anthesising female inflorescence at 8 am. ...
Elaeidobius kamerunicus is an important pollinator in Malaysian oil palm cultivation. After four decades of introduction, there are still reports of low fruit set for oil palm planted on mineral and peat soil areas in Malaysia. A comprehensive report on the population density of the weevil within the anthesising days with regard to Malaysia's climate is still lacking. Thus, this study aimed to elucidate the E. kamerunicus population density during anthesising days at both male and female inflorescence of oil palm by investigating the predominant soil affected with low fruit set, namely mineral and peat soil. The study was conducted from July 2022 to June 2023. At female inflorescence, the E. kamerunicus population was assessed by setting up
a yellow sticky trap daily from 1st to 4th day of anthesis. On male inflorescence, the weevil population was assessed by counting the E. kamerunicus present on the spikelet from 1st to 5th day of anthesis. Correlation between abiotic factors and the E. kamerunicus population was analysed using statistical software. On the female inflorescence, anthesising day revealed a significant difference (P<0.01) in the weevil population density per inflorescence. Further analysis indicates no significant difference between the 1st and 2nd-day female anthesis in the E. kamerunicus population and the highest visitation on 1st day of anthesis. The abiotic factor
did not influence the weevil population on peak anthesising days. The E. kamerunicus
population density per spikelet and per inflorescence were significantly different (P<0.01) between anthesising days at male inflorescence. Further analysis between the 3rd-day anthesis and other days indicates significant differences, with the highest population congregation on the 3rd day. During peak population density on male inflorescence, the temperature depicted a significant, negative and weak relationship with the E. kamerunicus population. The female E. kamerunicus was observed highest at both inflorescences compared to the male E. kamerunicus. This study provides comprehensive evidence of higher population density of the weevil on a specific day of anthesis and can be used as a reference to monitor the E. kamerunicus pollination activity.
... Hence, entomophilous pollination is the most crucial pollination method, especially among young palms [18,19]. While various insects, such as Thrips hawaiiensis and Pyroderces sp., can pollinate Elaeis palm, weevils of the genus Elaeidobius, such as Elaeidobius kamerunicus, are the most effective [19][20][21]. ...
... The movement of E. kamerunicus from male to female inflorescences in oil palms is likely due to the distribution of volatile compounds released by the inflorescences. The volatile compounds produced by oil palm inflorescences include (a) Estragole (C 10 H 12 O), a phenylpropene organic compound that is the major compound emitted by male oil palm flowers at all flowering stages and is responsible for attracting E. kamerunicus weevils to the male flowers for pollen collection [47]; (b) palmitic acid and 1-dodecyne, which are other volatile compounds produced by male inflorescences at all flowering stages [31]; (c) 9,12-Octadecadieonic acid (C 18 H 32 O 2 ), n-Hexadecanoic acid (C 10 H 12 O), and dan 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid (C 18 H 30 O 2 ), which are other reported volatile compounds released by male inflorescences [47]; and (d) Farnesol and squalene, which are volatile compounds produced by female oil palm inflorescences at all flowering stages, and due to the synchronicity of anthesis with the male inflorescences, as well as the similar scent released, the weevils may visit them by mistake [20,31]. ...
... E. kamerunicus tends to forage primarily in the morning to midday, around 1000 to 1200 [20,31,52], while T. hawaiiensis exhibits peak activity during two different periods, between 0800 and 0900 and 1400 and1500 [20,31,52]. Additionally, T. hawaiiensis is better adapted to the dry season and maintains optimal pollination services during this time [34]. ...
Pollination is crucial for oil palm yield, and its efficiency is influenced by multiple factors, including the effectiveness of Elaeidobius kamerunicus weevils as pollinators in Southeast Asia. Weevils transfer pollen between male and female flowers, leading to successful fertilization and fruit development, which contributes to higher oil palm yields and increased production of valuable oil. Understanding and conserving the weevil population is important for sustainable oil palm cultivation practices. The interaction between pollinators, including weevils, and environmental factors is complex, involving aspects such as pollinator behavior, abundance, diversity, and effectiveness, which are influenced by weather, landscape composition, and pesticide use. Understanding these interactions is critical for promoting sustainable pollination practices, including effective pest management and maintaining optimal pollinator populations. This review discusses various abiotic and biotic factors that affect pollination and pollinators in oil palm plantations, with a particular focus on weevils as primary pollinators. Factors such as rainfall, humidity, oil palm species, temperature, endogamy, parasitic nematodes, insecticides, predators, and proximity to natural forests can impact the weevil population. Further research is recommended to fill knowledge gaps and promote sustainable pollination practices in the oil palm industry.
... A short, crepuscular activity window has been described for tropical pollinators (Borges et al., 2016), including palm pollinators for which visiting activity synchronized on inflorescences of both sexes. For example, the 30-min dusk activity of the derelomine weevils Grasidius hybridus is perfectly synchronized on male and female inflorescences of Elaeis oleifera (Auffray et al., 2017). To our knowledge, there is no explanation of why nocturnal activity for tropical pollinators is short; however, it could be a strategy to limit inter-specific competition (Fründ et al., 2011) or an adaptation to climatic constraints (e.g., an adaptation to avoid daily rain maxima; Núñez et al. (2005)). ...
Dioecious plants generally display sexual dimorphism in male and female floral traits, potentially attracting slightly different pollinator communities. The sharing of common floral visitors between male and female flowers and their timing of visits to both sexes is of critical importance to ensure plant's reproductive success. Palm inflorescences are visited by abundant and diverse insect communities, yet the temporal patterns of insect visits on both sexes remain poorly known. We characterized the composition of a community of flower‐visiting arthropods associated with the dioecious ivory palm ( Phytelephas aequatorialis , Spruce) in a pre‐montane forest of Ecuador. We monitored the temporal variations in insect visits along the flowering of 12 inflorescences (eight female and four male) using interception traps recovered every 4 h. We report 59 morphospecies in the arthropod community, dominated by three beetle families: Staphylinidae, Nitidulidae, and Curculionidae. Male inflorescences were more abundantly visited than female, but visitors of the later were taxonomically more diverse. Among the 16 pollinator candidates identified, nine visited both inflorescence sexes synchronously at dusk /night whereas the others did so asynchronously during the day. Our study provides new insights into the pollination mechanism of P. aequatorialis. We found evidence of differential pollinator attraction between floral sexes, which may be explained by the sexual dimorphism of both flowers. Synchronicity in dusk/night visits of both inflorescence sexes suggests a sexual synchronization of the signal used to attract pollinators.
Abstract in Spainsh is available with online material
... It is a mutualistic, co-evolutionary interaction between plants and animals, which is crucial for sustainable crop production (FAO, 2011;Irshad and Stephen, 2014;Peace et al., 2020). The importance of pollination and insect pollinators in bringing about adequate fruitset and desirable yield in oil palm and by extension ensuring an economically sustainable oil palm industry (Syed, 1979;Genty et al., 1986;Auffray et al., 2017;Siswanto and Soetopo, 2019) cannot be overemphasised. Malaysia and Indonesiawhich dominate world production and trade of palm oilas well as other non-African palm oil producing countries have been known to benefitin terms of acceptable fruitset and improved yieldfrom the introduction of pollinating insect species from Africa (Syed, 1982;Basri, 1984;Mariau and Genty, 1988;Chinchilla and Richardson, 1991;Caudwell et al., 2003;Swaray et al., 2021). ...
... The work of Auffray et al. (2017), comments on coexistence amongst insect pollinators. According to them, coexistence is important among insect species as resources such as shelter, food and breeding site are in short supply as such need to be managed well for all to benefit. ...
Oil palm and its pollinators are native to Africa. Notwithstanding, it has been extensively cultivated outside its native range, so also has its pollinators been acquired and introduced. A concern, however is that most documentation on oil palm and its pollinators are non-indigenous, with little information of African origin commenting on their activities in Africa. Thus, a study on the insect pollinators of oil palm was carried out on two fruit forms: Dura and Tenera , (ages ten and seven, respectively), in Ghana. The aim was to understand how average monthly population density of the pollinators relates to one another, and to two bunch parameters (fruitset and fruit-to-bunch ratio). Nine species (all in the order Coleoptera) were consistently seen on the spikelets of anthesising male inflorescences, and eleven species on receptive female inflorescences. Six were of the Elaeidobius genus: E. kamerunicus , E. plagiatus , E. singularis , E. subvittatus , E. bilineatus , and Elaeidobius sp. 1 (unidentified species); two each were of the Microporum genus: M. congolenses , M. dispar , and the Prosoestus genus: P. scuptilis , P. minor ; while one species was of either Atheta or Forficula . The pollinators were observed to be positively related, and to varying degree of significance. Fruitset level was acceptably high, indicating adequate pollinator population and efficient pollination. There was a positive relationship between population density of the pollinators and fruitset, and a negative relationship between the bunch parameters. A number of other insects were seldom observed around the male and female inflorescences; their role could not be defined.
... Despite repeated attempts, specimens were not observed on these flowers earlier or later in the day. Such timed phenology on flowers has been described in other plant-weevil pollination mutualism (Auffray et al. 2017;Saunders 2020), suggesting that Acokanthera might constitute the host plant for E. pedi gen. et sp. ...
... et sp. nov.) show erect setae on elytra and prothorax that are typical adaptations to pollen transport in Derelomini (although pollination might occur with species not showing such adaptation; Anstett 1999) and 4) adults show a crepuscular and night flight phenology, as is described in several Derelomini and Tychiini acting as pollinators of their hosts (Auffray et al. 2017;Saunders 2020). ...
A new genus of derelomine flower weevil (Curculionidae: Derelomini sensu Franz 2006), Ebenacobius Haran gen. nov., is described to accommodate a clade of species morphologically and phylogenetically distinct from other genera in this tribe. This genus can be diagnosed as follows: protibiae armed with an apical mucro, claws free, eye convexity exceeding the contour of head in dorsal view and forehead with a median furrow. In total, 19 species are recognized in this genus; 14 species are described as new (E. curvisetis Haran sp. nov.; E. duplicatus Haran sp. nov.; E. grobbelaarae Haran sp. nov.; E. hessei Haran sp. nov.; E. hippopotamorum sp. nov.; E. kuscheli sp. nov.; E. mulanjensis sp. nov.; E. oberprieleri Haran sp. nov.; E. rectirostris Haran sp. nov.; E. san Haran sp. nov.; E. pedi Haran sp. nov.; E. thoracicus Haran sp. nov.; E. tsonga Haran sp. nov. and E. xhosa Haran sp. nov.), five species of Derelomus Schoenherr (D. atratus Hesse; D. costalis Fåhraeus; D. incognitus Hesse; D. rhodesianus Hesse; D. turneri Marshall) are hereby transferred to Ebenacobius gen. nov. and one species name is placed in synonymy (Derelomus rugosicollis Hesse, 1929 = Derelomus costalis Fåhraeus, 1844 syn. nov.). Members of Ebenacobius gen. nov. seem to develop in inflorescences of dicot plants, with larval stages of at least two species recovered from the flowers of Euclea species (Ebenaceae). A key to the continental African genera of Derelomini and to species of Ebenacobius gen. nov. is provided. Pictures of habitus and terminalia of adults, along with distribution and life history data are also provided for each species.
... Thus the characteristics, modify the time the insects seek for food, shelter, mating, nesting, oviposition and resting. Hence, their visitation time and duration on flowers are affected by thermoregulation, air temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity [29,28]. ...
... There were no significance differences among the insect species collected from the three locations but the slight difference observed between the insect species collected on the tall and the short plants of the Hamelia patens (Jacq.) was as a result of continuous clipping of the twigs holding the floral parts by the university gardeners as observed at site 2. Clipping the twigs and the floral parts of the Hamelia patens, no doubt made them aesthetically beautiful. However, the practice obviously affected the intrinsic behaviours and navigational cues of the insects to the floral parts of the plants and thus affect the diversity of the insects [29]. ...
... Thus the characteristics, modify the time the insects seek for food, shelter, mating, nesting, oviposition and resting. Hence, their visitation time and duration on flowers are affected by thermoregulation, air temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity [29,28]. ...
... There were no significance differences among the insect species collected from the three locations but the slight difference observed between the insect species collected on the tall and the short plants of the Hamelia patens (Jacq.) was as a result of continuous clipping of the twigs holding the floral parts by the university gardeners as observed at site 2. Clipping the twigs and the floral parts of the Hamelia patens, no doubt made them aesthetically beautiful. However, the practice obviously affected the intrinsic behaviours and navigational cues of the insects to the floral parts of the plants and thus affect the diversity of the insects [29]. ...
Aim: The study was carried out to ascertain how Hamelia patens would be valuable in sustaining diversity of beneficial insects. Study Design: Investigative cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out at University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The insects and plants were processed for identification at the. Identification and curation of the insects was done at Insect Museum, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. The study started in June and ended in September 2018. Methodology: The heights and canopy sizes of the Hamelia patens were measured with range pole and measuring tape. Insects associated with the floral parts of Hamelia patens were collected in the morning (08:00-10:00 am) and in the evening (4:00-06:00 pm) hours, with a sweep net. They were knockdown by pyrethrum insecticide and preserved in a bottle containing 70% ethanol. They were Original Research Article Gbarakoro et al.; AJEE, 16(2): 10-19, 2021; Article no.AJEE.72862 11 taxonomically grouped and sent to a taxonomist at Insect Museum, Nigeria for species identification. Results: Fifteen (15) insect species were collected on the Hamelia patens; Megachile mephistrophelica (Grib.), Megachile cinta (Fab.), Braunisca bilunta (Enderloein.), Pterandus sp., Lilioceris sp. and Virachola antalus (Hoph.) restricted their visitation on the plants only in the morning hours, Chelonus bifoveolatus (Szepg.) and Chrysolagria nairobana (Borch.) restricted their visitation in the evening hours. The remaining species were continuous on the plants. There was no significant difference (P=.05) between the number of insect species collected on taller plants and shorter ones. There was a significant difference between the insects that visited the plants in the morning and evening hours. Conclusion: The arrival of the insects on the Hamelia patens varied but some were time dependent. The clipping of the plant's twigs affected the abundance of insects that visit the plant.
... In Indonesia, a significant increase in overall productivity (30-45%) was recorded following the successful introduction of E. kamerunicus, whereas areas in which this specialized pollinator was not introduced remained uncompetitive (Prasetyo et al. 2019). Nonetheless, in South American commercial crops, the participation of other flower-visiting insects associated with the congener Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés -Elaeidobius subvittatus (Faust 1898), Mystrops costaricensis Gillogly 1972, and Grasidius (Auffray et al. 2017;Meléndez and Ponce 2016). Therefore, the participation of copollinators, considering their geographical and temporal variation, can be a key element for the implementation of reproductive strategies in commercial palm crops such as A. aculeata, an aspect that has not been sufficiently assessed thus far. ...
Acrocomia aculeata is under accelerated domestication due to the high yield and quality of the oils obtained from the fruits. Key details about its reproduction and fruit production, notably its dependence on cross-pollination, have not been thoroughly assessed. In the course of three successive reproductive seasons, we investigated the phenology, floral biology, pollination ecology, and reproductive efficiency of a natural population of A. aculeata in the department of Casanare, Colombian Orinoquia. We determined the effective pollinators among floral visitors based on their abundance, pollen carrying capacity, and constancy in association with receptive female-phase inflorescences. The studied population of A. aculeata exhibited a seasonal reproductive cycle, producing inflorescences during the drier months of December to April (peaking in March) and mature fruits from October to March. Each individual produces six to ten protogynous inflorescences, with a female phase that lasts ca. 12 h and a male phase extending for four to five days. A total of 48 insect species were observed in association with A. aculeata, averaging over 3500 visitors per anthetic female-phase inflorescence. Flower weevils (Andranthobius spp.; Derelomini) and small sap beetles (Mystrops sp.; Mystropini) were the most abundant visiting species and main pollinators, accounting for 90–95% of effective pollination services. Their high efficiency as pollen vectors was evident, as fructification rates reached on average 65.5% during the three years of study. Our findings support the assumption that co-pollination in A. aculeata evolved as a specialized strategy to maintain a high and temporally stable reproductive efficiency over time.
