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... most abundant pigment in C. vulgaris is chlorophyll, which can reach 1-2% dry weight and is situated in the thylakoids. C. vulgaris also contains important amounts of carotenoids ( Table 3) that act as accessory pigments by catching light; β-carotene for instance is associated with the lipid droplets in the chloroplast, and primary carotenoids are associated with chlorophyll in thylakoids where they trap light energy and transfer it into the photosystem. However, as in terrestrial plants, some pigments act as photo- protectors by protecting chlorophyll molecules from degradation and bleaching during strong exposure to radiation and oxygen [44]. ...
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Microalgae are able to enhance the nutritional content of conventional foods and hence to positively affect human health, due to their original chemical composition. The aim of the present study was to prepare fresh croissant filled with imitation cheese enriched with different amounts of Chlorella vulgaris biomass and to assay the quality paramete...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary inclusion of microalga Spirulina platensis (SP) and Chlorella vulgaris (CV) as feed additives in balanced diets formulated for growing rabbits on digestibility, growth performance, carcass traits, some blood parameters of rabbits. Sixty New Zealand White (NZW) rabbits (five weeks old with...
Citations
... Chlorella is a freshwater green microalgae that contains large amounts of essential amino acids and chlorophyll pigments (Safi et al. 2014). In addition, it contains considerable amounts of vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, C and E, iron, calcium, phosphorus, iodine, manganese (Safi et al. 2014). ...
... Chlorella is a freshwater green microalgae that contains large amounts of essential amino acids and chlorophyll pigments (Safi et al. 2014). In addition, it contains considerable amounts of vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, C and E, iron, calcium, phosphorus, iodine, manganese (Safi et al. 2014). Spirulina is a blue-green cyanobacter that contains considerable amounts of vitamins such as A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, E and K, beta-carotene and phycobilins (Ruzik 2023). ...
Chlorella (CH) and spirulina (SP) are sources active components that act as antioxidants, improving quality of meat products. Objective this study was to evaluate the application of both to improve the quality and extend shelf life of beef burgers during refrigerated storage. Five treatments were studied: CONT – Control (without natural antioxidants), SP0.25 – 0.25% spirulina, SP0.50 – 0.50% spirulina, CH0.25 –0.25% chlorella and CH0.50 – 0.50 % chlorella. Regarding the results, pH was higher (6.29) at the end of storage, mainly in samples with added chlorella. The chemical composition was changed, the CONT sample showed higher moisture and ash content. DPPH, ABTS and total phenolics showed that increasing the concentration of spirulina and chlorella led to an increase in antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds and consequently lower lipid oxidation. Weight loss due to cooking and shear force showed no difference and the addition of spirulina and chlorella reduced the weight loss of the burgers during storage. The color of the burgers changed due to the greenish color of spirulina and chlorella. This study shows the possibility of adding new ingrediets to meat products due to its active natural compounds, with notable antioxidant activity, which can increase the shelf life of foods during storage.
... In addition, C. vulgaris's high protein content has positioned it as a viable alternative protein source in food products, comparable to other plant-based proteins like soybeans. C. vulgaris contains 43%-to-61% protein by dry weight, depending on growth conditions [9,10]. Approximately 20% of these proteins are associated with the cell wall, while about 50% are located within the cells. ...
... Proteins are among the most abundant components of C. vulgaris, with studies reporting levels between 43% and 61%, depending on cultivation conditions [9,10,30]. This makes C. vulgaris a notable protein source among microalgae. ...
... The lipid composition of C. vulgaris is of particular interest, as it can be used in various applications, such as the production of biofuels, nutritional supplements, and cosmetic ingredients [36]. Lipids in C. vulgaris represent around 5 to 58% [9] and are primarily composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The most prominent fatty acids include linoleic acid (18:2n-6), oleic acid (18:1c9), palmitic acid (16:0), and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), with linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids being the primary omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, respectively [37]. ...
This review presents the chemical composition, bioactive properties, and diverse applications of Chlorella vulgaris, a green microalga widely recognized for its exceptional nutritional value and therapeutic potential. The study emphasizes the presence of key nutrients, including high-quality proteins, essential vitamins, minerals, and an array of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, chlorophyll, and polysaccharides. These compounds have been shown to exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activities, including potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, lipid-lowering, and detoxifying effects. The review explores the multifaceted applications of C. vulgaris in various sectors, including its growing role as a functional food ingredient, a nutraceutical supplement in animal feed, and a promising therapeutic agent for combatting chronic diseases. This paper also highlights its potential for enhancing immune responses, mitigating oxidative stress, promoting detoxification of heavy metals, and improving overall health outcomes. However, current limitations in clinical evidence surrounding its medicinal efficacy present challenges that need to be addressed. Furthermore, significant obstacles remain in scaling up C. vulgaris production, including optimizing cultivation techniques and improving bioavailability. Additionally, this review identifies crucial research gaps, particularly in optimizing cultivation techniques, improving bioavailability, and validating the clinical efficacy of C. vulgaris. By addressing these challenges, C. vulgaris holds significant promise in contributing to global health, sustainable nutrition, and environmental conservation efforts by serving as a source of protein and bioactive components for a growing population while simultaneously having a lower environmental impact and requiring fewer resources in production compared to traditional ingredients like soybean meal.
... Chlorella vulgaris (CV), a green microalga, has garnered significant attention owing to its diverse applications and promising characteristics. Studies have highlighted its potential in various fields such as food supplements, biofuel production, wastewater treatment, and aquaculture (Safi et al. 2014;Ibrahim et al. 2024). This microalga is known for its high lipid content, natural metabolic versatility, and ability to thrive under various environmental conditions (Zuñiga et al. 2016;Manusiwa et al. 2024). ...
Nile tilapia, a widely cultivated freshwater fish, faces significant stressors, such as hypoxia and cold temperatures, which can negatively impact its quality and growth. The current study explored the impact of Chlorella vulgaris (CV) powder and its nanoparticles (CVNPs) on the growth performance, antioxidant capacity, liver protection, and meat quality of Nile tilapia to alleviate hypoxia and cold stress. A total of 450 healthy 28-day-old Nile tilapia fingerlings (average weight 5.32 ± 1.1 g, length 3.1 ± 0.5 cm) were divided into five groups: T1 (2.5 g/kg CV), T2 (5 g/kg CV), T3 (2.5 g/kg CVNP), T4 (5 g/kg CVNP), and the control group received a basal diet without additives, each with three subgroups in tri-replicate (10 fish/replicate). After six weeks of feeding, growth metrics and meat quality parameters were assessed, and each group was subjected to hypoxia, cold stress, or optimal conditions. The results revealed that T4 exhibited the highest weight gain (WG) and lowest feed conversion ratio (FCR), whereas T1 showed the highest specific growth rate (SGR) and length gain. Hypoxia and cold stress significantly (p < 0.05) increased cortisol, oxidative markers (MDA, NO, and GSSG), and liver enzymes (ALT and AST) while reducing (p < 0.05) antioxidant markers (SOD and GSH) and total cholesterol (TC). ATP levels significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in hypoxic fish, indicating muscle energy depletion. T1 significantly (p < 0.05) lowered cortisol levels, whereas T2 and T3 significantly (p < 0.05) increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. T2 also significantly (p < 0.05) increased the TC level. ALT levels significantly (p < 0.05) decreased at T1, T2, and T4, with AST levels reduced at T4 only. CV and CVNP supplementation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the muscle MDA levels under optimal and stressful conditions, notably at T1 and T4. Additionally, meat lightness, yellowness, and chroma significantly (p < 0.05) increased in stressed tilapia, whereas meat redness was improved under optimal conditions. Fatty acid profiles varied with CV and CVNP levels across different conditions. In conclusion, CV, particularly in the nanoparticle form, enhanced the growth, antioxidant activity, and meat quality of tilapia under physical stress.
... Chlorella vulgaris has only one cup-shaped chloroplast with or without pyrenoids, which contain the starch grains. Since C. vulgaris is a nonmotile microalgae, it reproduces through asexual autospores (Safi et al., 2014), which is through the division of the mother cell into 2-32 autospores or daughter cells. The mother cell wall breaks after the formation of autospores and the mother cell's remains are consumed by the daughter cells through autosporulation (Ru et al., 2020;Yamamoto et al., 2014). ...
... They help in the growth of cells, repair, and maintenance. Chlorella vulgaris contains 43%-58% of the total protein content, of which its dry weight depends on the growth condition present (Safi et al., 2014). For microalgae, about 20% of these are fixed to the cell wall, 50% evenly distributed within the cell, while the remaining 30% of the proteins are mobile, whereby they move in and out of the cell wall. ...
... Chlorella vulgaris is important at the nutritional level because in autotrophic or heterotrophic media, they have a possibility to synthesize essential and nonessential amino acids required by human beings. Each of these components of Yusof et al. (2011) the growth media, proteins and amino acids, can be separated by means of using alkaline solutions, ultrafiltration, or precipitating the proteins with trichloroacetic acid or 0.1 N hydrochloric acid (Safi et al., 2014). Among the amino acids that have been characterized in the growth kinetics of C. vulgaris are aspartic, glutamic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, cysteine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, histidine, lysine, arginine, tryptophan, ornithine, and proline, where glutamic acid is synthesized in large quantities, followed by aspartic acid with a concentration of 13.7 g/100 g of protein and 10.94 g/100 g of protein, respectively (Ursu et al., 2014). ...
Chlorella vulgaris, a freshwater microalga, is gaining attention for its potential as a nutritious food source and dietary supplement. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion on C. vulgaris, evaluating its viability as a food substitute in the industry by exploring the nutritional value and application of C. vulgaris in the food industry. Rich in protein, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, Chlorella offers substantial nutritional benefits, positioning it as a valuable food substitute. Its applications in the food industry include incorporation into smoothies, snacks, and supplements, enhancing the nutritional profile of various food products. The health benefits of Chlorella encompass antioxidant activity, immune system support, and detoxification, contributing to overall well‐being. Despite these advantages, the commercialization of Chlorella faces significant challenges. These include variability in antibacterial activity due to strain and growth conditions, high production costs, contamination risks, and sensory issues such as unpleasant taste and smell. Additionally, Chlorella can accumulate heavy metals from its environment, necessitating stringent quality control measures. Future prospects involve improving Chlorella strains through genetic manipulation to enhance nutrient content, developing cost‐effective culture systems, and exploring advanced processing techniques like pulsed electric fields for better digestibility. Addressing sensory issues through flavor‐masking strategies and employing environmental management practices will further support Chlorella's integration into the food industry. Although C. vulgaris shows great potential as a nutritious food ingredient, overcoming existing challenges and optimizing production methods would be crucial for its successful adoption and widespread use.
... Microalgae are known to produce a diverse range of natural compounds that have potential to be utilized for cosmeceuticals. To date, more than 30,000 microalgae species have been identified, however, commercial application of metabolites from microalgae for cosmeceuticals is still limited to a few species (Safi et al. 2014;Otalora et al. 2021). Besides Spirulina (Arthrospira), Chlorella is the second most widely used species for various industrial products, including cosmetics (Liu and Hu 2013;Sathasivam et al. 2019). ...
... Being structural molecules, polysaccharides are a critical building block of Chlorella cell walls which comprise up to 80% polysaccharides, including cellulose. The most abundant intracellular polysaccharide in Chlorella cells is starch, which is synthesized and deposited in the chloroplast as energy storage for the cells (Safi et al. 2014). Starch of Chlorella composed of amylose and amylopectin. ...
Chlorella and its metabolites have been known for decades to affect skin and beauty positively. With its increasing use in cosmeceuticals, there is a growing interest in elucidating its potential, particularly the bioactive compounds extracted from Chlorella biomass. Chlorella has numerous advantages as the key ingredient in cosmeceutical products as it can be easily cultivated, is highly adaptable in various environmental conditions, and contains high-value metabolites. The bioactive compounds include polysaccharides, chlorophyll, carotenoids, lutein, and peptides, demonstrating antioxidant, anti-aging, moisturizing, brightening, and UV-protection properties that are highly desirable in cosmeceutical products. This review highlights the biodiversity of Chlorella bioactive compounds, the application of Chlorella and its bioactive compounds for commercial cosmeceutical products, along with the production and extraction systems that have not been discussed elsewhere. Further optimization on the extraction and purification of bioactive compounds from microalgae biomass and the use of genetic engineering and omics of Chlorella will have the potential to improve the purity and yield of bioactive compounds.
... Phycocyanin accounts for ~20% of spirulina protein, is soluble in water and, importantly, is rapidly digested by pepsin (65), making human digestion feasible. Contrastingly, 20% of chlorella proteins (including light harvesting membrane proteins) are bound to the cell wall (27,66), which may be speculated to reduce bioaccessibility to the amino acids. Finally, in these preparations, spirulina had roughly half the fat and fibre content compared to both chlorella preparations ( Table 2). ...
Introduction
Microalgae provide a sustainable basis for protein-rich food production. However, human data concerning microalgae ingestion, subsequent postprandial amino acid (AA) availability and associated metabolic responses are minimal.
Objectives
We investigated ingesting Arthrospira sp. (spirulina;SPR), and Chlorella sp. (chlorella; in ‘whole cell’ [WCC] and ‘split cell’ [SCC] forms, the latter proposed to improve digestibility), compared with a high-quality animal derived protein source (milk; MLK).
Subjects/methods
Ten participants (age; 21 ± 1y, BMI; 25 ± 1 kg·m⁻²) completed a randomised, crossover, double-blind study, partaking in 4 counterbalanced (for order) experimental visits. At each visit participants ingested SPR, WCC, SCC or MLK drinks containing 20 g protein and 75 g carbohydrate. Arterialised venous blood samples, indirect calorimetry and visual analogue scales were assessed postabsorptive, and throughout a 5 h postprandial period to measure AA, glucose, insulin and uric acid concentrations, whole-body energy expenditure and appetite scores, respectively.
Results
Protein ingestion increased plasma AA concentrations (p < 0.001) to differing total postprandial total—and essential—AA availabilities; highest for MLK (86.6 ± 17.8 mmol·L⁻¹) and SPR (84.9 ± 12.5 mmol·L⁻¹), lowest for WCC (−4.1 ± 21.7 mmol·L⁻¹; p < 0.05), with SCC (55.7 ± 11.2 mmol·L⁻¹) marginally greater than WCC (p = 0.09). No differences (p > 0.05) were detected between conditions for postprandial glucose or insulin concentrations, whole-body energy expenditure or appetite scores, but serum uric acid concentrations increased (p < 0.05) following microalgae ingestion only.
Conclusion
Our data imply that microalgae can present a bioavailable source of protein for human nutrition, however, challenges remain, requiring species selection and/or biomass processing to overcome.
... After these newly formed cells have fully developed, the mother cell wall breaks down, releasing the daughter cells. The remaining fragments of the mother cell are then taken by the recently formed daughter cells as food (Safi et al., 2014). Chlorella vulgaris is ideal for production because it is remarkably resistant to harsh conditions and invaders. ...
... The reclamation of nutrients in wastewater diminishes the expenses associated with supplementary nutrient provision for microalgal cultivation. Incorporating microalgae in wastewater treatment is beneficial owing to their capacity for nutrient recovery, hence promoting sustainable water and waste management practices [ [87,88]]. ...
... Microalgae are crucial to preserving the ecosystem's equilibrium since it is the primary producer in the food chain (Li and Meng, 2023). One of the most remarkable is the green eukaryotic microalga Chlorella vulgaris (Safi et al. 2014). ...
Consumer perception of algae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria varies widely depending on factors such as education, cultural background, and exposure to information. Generally, there is a growing interest and acceptance of these organisms due to their potential health benefits and sustainability aspects. However, some consumers may still associate algae with negative connotations, such as the presence of toxins or unpalatable taste. Efforts to educate consumers about the nutritional value, safety, and ecological advantages of algae-based products can help improve their perception and increase market acceptance. This chapter provides an overview of the history of algae consumption, types, nutritional characteristics, and benefits, as well as opportunities for consumer perceptions of algae, microalgae-based products, and cyanobacteria. It also offers a glimpse into the future outlook for these organisms, exploring potential advancements in their utilization, public perception, and market growth.
... La interacción con ROS podría haber jugado un papel en el presente estudio, ya que incubamos nuestros cultivos tratados en condiciones de luz natural. Por el contrario, se ha reportado que estos cambios en ROS podrían depender del número de células o cloroplastos (clorofila) y de las actividades de esterasas y peroxidasas (Safi et al., 2014). ...
Silver nanoparticles are used commercially due in part to its antibacterial power. However, due to their nanoscale size, these may not be retained by filters wastewater reaching the aquatic environment, which could affect microorganisms of initial food-chain as microalgae. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the cytotoxic effects of silver nanoparticles (3-7nm) in freshwater phytoplankton (Chlorella vulgaris) ex situ. Silver nanoparticles synthesis was performed according to silver nitrate chemical reduction, they were characterized by scanning electron microscope. C. vulgaris collected from Chapala Lake, Jalisco, México, was kept under laboratory conditions. C. vulgaris, grown in Bristol broth, were exposed to different concentrations of silver nanoparticles (0.01, 0.1 and 1mg L-1) for 24 hours. An important cytotoxic effect was determined in C. vulgaris exposed to silver nanoparticles, manifested by decrement in Chlorophyll-a contents, morphological changes, prominent perforations in cell walls, important decrement of lipid contents and oxidative stress generation, that corresponding to the nanoparticle concentration.
... Cells were crescent-shaped, containing a single chloroplast with one pyrenoid) (Singha roy & Pal 2015), Tetrastrum (which exhibited a four-celled colony arranged in a flat plane, either tightly packed or with a small space in the centre). Larger compound colonies with multiple four-celled colonies were also present) (Singha roy & Pal 2015), Tetradesmus (cells were oval-shaped and often grouped together in colonies called coenobia, which were arranged in various ways, including flat plates, tetrads or even irregular clusters) (Turiel et al. 2021), Chlorella (cells were comparatively small, spherical in shape and lacked flagella) (Safi et al. 2014), Chlamydomonas (cells were sphericalshaped with a narrow anterior end and a broader posterior end with a prominent feature being its large, cup-shaped chloroplast) (Singha roy & Pal 2015), Euglena (cells had an elongated ovoid form. They had two flagella originating in the basal bodies at the bottom of an indentation at the front end) (Ciugulea & Triemer 2006;Zakrys et al. 2013), Golenkiniopsis (These cells were typically spherical or slightly oval in shape with the presence of quadri flagellate zoospores equipped with four flagella, which propel them through water.) ...
This study developed a nature-based pilot-scale technology for simultaneous piggery WW treatment and resource recovery potential. The technology comprised a 2-stage vertical flow constructed wetland (2-VFCW) integrated with a microbial fuel cell (MFC) and microalgal photobioreactor. The first and second stage was an unsaturated and saturated type, respectively. The bioelectricity generation was optimised by investigating the suitable electrode zonation, hydraulic retention time (HRT) and WW loading rate. The 2-VFCW-MFC-treated effluent was studied to grow microalgae for biomass production. The 2-VFCW-MFC showed better treatment efficiency than the 2-VFCW, possibly due to enhanced microbial activity on the electrode surface, leading to improved organic matter degradation and electron transfer to the cathode, enhancing NO3− and PO43− reduction. The 2-VFCW-MFC with electrode zonation of 20 cm (cathode) and 60 cm (anode) and HRT of 76 h, 48 min showed the highest open-circuit voltage of 291.83 ± 13.53 mV and WW treatment efficiency. The highest algal biomass of 21,323.34 ± 8,316.26 mg/L (wet weight) was produced at HRT of 96 h, then entered the death phase. Comparatively, the 2-VFCW-MFC showed higher WW treatment efficiency than 2-VFCW at 2 L/day by 23.24% COD, 27.43% TOC, 33.05% PO43−, 13.51% NO3−, 8.14% TN, except TAN (−22.71%).
