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7 Postcranial elements and skeletal reconstructions of the parapithecid Apidium (A) and the propliopithecid Aegyptopithecus (B). Known elements are represented by photographs. Note that these species are represented by cranial material as well (particularly Aegyptopithecus; see fi gure 22.9). Original artwork by Luci Betti-Nash, Stony Brook University.
Source publication
Anthropoid primates were among the most common members of Afro-Arabian mammal faunas during the late Paleogene, and they may have been present on that landmass as early as the late Paleocene. Specialists continue to debate the role of Asia in early anthropoid diversification, and whether stem anthropoids originated in Asia or Afro-Arabia, but the A...
Citations
... The antiquity of the group in Afro-Arabia can be traced back to the dawn of the Cenozoic era, with the still enigmatic Altiatlasius from the latest Paleocene of Morocco (Sig e et al., 1990). This taxon, known by about ten isolated teeth, is so far the oldest primatomorphan from Afro-Arabia, but its primitiveness makes it difficult to elucidate its phylogenetic status (e.g., Sig e et al., 1990;Hooker et al., 1999;Beard, 2004;Marivaux, 2006;Seiffert et al., 2010;Seiffert, 2012;Ni et al., 2013). From our current knowledge of the Afro-Arabian fossil record, the Paleogene evolutionary histories of subsequent strepsirrhine and anthropoid primates are primarily documented from North Africa, particularly and historically not only from Egypt (Fayum Depression; for a summary see Seiffert, 2012) but also from Algeria (de Bonis et al., 1988;Mahboubi, 1992, 1994;Tabuce et al., 2009), Libya (Jaeger et al., 2010;Mattingly et al., 2021), Morocco (Gheerbrant et al., 1998;Tabuce et al., 2005), and Tunisia (Hartenberger and Marandat, 1992;Marivaux et al., 2013Marivaux et al., , 2014, as well as from Arabia (Oman: Thomas et al., 1988Thomas et al., , 1991Gheerbrant et al., 1993Gheerbrant et al., , 1995Saudi Arabia: Zalmout et al., 2010), and to a lesser extent from Sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya: Leakey et al., 1995;Ducrocq et al., 2011;Tanzania: Stevens et al., 2013;Angola: Pickford, 1986; Namibia: Pickford et al., 2008;Godinot et al., 2018). ...
... To some extent, the DAK-Arg-090 P 4 can also be compared with the isolated P 4 attributed to Nosmips (N. aenigmaticus; Egypt, Fayum BQ-2, early late Eocene; Seiffert et al., 2010, fig. 1H), an enigmatic primate whose phylogenetic position is unclear. ...
... The fragmentary nature of the DAK-Pto-056 specimen does not allow us to observe a number of characters, such as the presence or absence of a strong buccal cingulid, the development and position of the cristid obliqua, and the configuration of the trigonid, which are particularly diagnostic of lower molars of the large anthropoids of this epoch in Afro-Arabia, i.e., early Oligocene Propliopithecidae (Aegyptopithecus, Moeripithecus, and Propliopithecus; e.g., Schl€ osser, 1910Schl€ osser, , 1911Simons, 1965;Kay et al., 1981;Simons et al., 1987;Thomas et al., 1991). However, the preserved crown portion of the DAK-Pto-056 M 3 has a lingual margin relatively straight-sided (rather than being strongly basally inflated as in Aegyptopithecus and Moeripithecus), with acute cuspids marginally situated, and the development of an accessory distolingual cuspid, which are dental traits observed, to some extent, on the lower molars of most species of Propliopithecus (e.g., Kay et al., 1981;Seiffert et al., 2010). Despite the specimen being only a fragment, its estimated maximum length and width (deriving from our tentative reconstruction of the missing tooth part; Fig. 3Q) would indicate that the size of this tooth was close to that of the M 3 of Propliopithecus haeckeli (based on the unique mandibular specimen documenting this species; Schl€ osser, 1910Schl€ osser, , 1911Kay et al., 1981). ...
... Aegyptopithecus, Apidium, Parapithecus, Propliopithecus, and Catopithecus are anthropoids, being more closely related to living platyrrhines and catarrhines than to Tarsius (Kay et al., 1997). There is debate around the placement of different specimens into particular taxa, and how genera and families should be placed within the anthropoid phylogenetic tree, especially in relation to extant groups (e.g., Gingerich, 1978;Harrison, 2013;Jaeger et al., 2019;Seiffert et al., 2010;Simons, 1995;Szalay & Delson, 1979). Aegyptopithecus and Propliopithecus are closely related, both belonging to the Propliopithecidae superfamily. ...
... Aegyptopithecus and Propliopithecus are closely related, both belonging to the Propliopithecidae superfamily. Some researchers suggest they should be placed within the same genus, in which case all material referred to Aegyptopithecus would be placed under Propliopithecus, although this is still debated (Andrews, 1985;Harrison, 1987;Harrison, 2013;Seiffert et al., 2010). Propliopithecidae includes taxa considered as some of the earliest catarrhine relatives, with included genera falling in basal or stem positions relative to Catarrhini (Ankel-Simons et al., 1998;Fleagle & Kay, 1987;Kay et al., 1981;Seiffert et al., 2020;Seiffert & Simons, 2001). ...
... Apidium and Parapithecus are part of the family Parapithecidae, and although some researchers consider them stem catarrhines (e.g., Jaeger et al., 1998), others suggested a stem anthropoid placement for the clade (Fleagle & Kay, 1987;Harrison, 2013;Ross et al., 1998;Seiffert et al., 2005;Seiffert et al., 2020;Simons, 2001). Catopithecus, in the family Oligopithecidae, has also been considered both a catarrhine (Rasmussen, 2002;Seiffert et al., 2005Seiffert et al., , 2010Seiffert et al., , 2020 and stem anthropoid (Harrison, 2013;Kay et al., 1997;Ross et al., 1998). ...
Objectives
Fossils from the Fayum Depression, Egypt, are crucial for understanding anthropoid evolution due to the abundance of taxa and the time interval they represent (late Eocene to early Oligocene). Dietary and foraging behavioral interpretations suggest fruits were their dominant food source, although hard foods (e.g., seeds and nuts) and leaves could have been important dietary components for particular groups. In this study, we compare dental chipping patterns in five Fayum primate genera with chipping data for extant primates, to assess potential hard object feeding in early anthropoids.
Materials and Methods
Original specimens were studied ( Aegyptopithecus : n = 100 teeth; Parapithecus : n = 72, Propliopithecus : n = 99, Apidium : n = 82; Catopithecus : n = 68); with the number, severity, and position of chips recorded. Dental caries was also recorded, due to its association with soft fruit consumption in extant primates.
Results
Tooth chipping was low across all five genera studied, with a pooled chipping prevalence of 5% (21/421). When split into the three anthropoid families represented, chipping prevalence ranged from 2.6% (4/154) in Parapithecidae, 6% (12/199) in Propliopithecidae, and 7.4% (5/68) in Oligopithecidae. Three carious lesions were identified in Propliopithecidae.
Discussion
The chipping prevalence is low when compared to extant anthropoids (range from 4% to 40%) and is consistent with a predominantly soft fruit diet, but not with habitual hard food mastication. The presence of caries supports consumption of soft, sugary fruits, at least in Propliopithecidae. Our results add support for low dietary diversity in early anthropoids, with soft fruits as likely dominant food sources.
... The fossil taxa selected are those well represented by cranial remains, and in some cases by postcranial remains. Aegyptopithecus, a primitive stem catarrhine from the Oligocene of Egypt (Seiffert et al., 2010), is defined as the outgroup to root the output trees. ...
Yuanmoupithecus xiaoyuan, a small catarrhine from the Late Miocene of Yunnan in southern China, was initially suggested to be related to Miocene proconsuloids or dendropithecoids from East Africa, but subsequent reports indicated that it might be more closely related to hylobatids. Here, detailed comparisons of the material, including seven newly discovered teeth and a partial lower face of a juvenile individual, provide crucial evidence to help establish its phylogenetic relationships. Yuanmoupithecus exhibits a suite of synapomorphies that support a close phylogenetic relationship with extant hylobatids. Furthermore, based on the retention of several primitive features of the dentition, Yuanmoupithecus can be shown to be the sister taxon of crown hylobatids. The contention that Kapi ramnagarensis from the Middle Miocene of India might represent an earlier species of hylobatid is not supported here. Instead, Kapi is inferred to be a specialized pliopithecoid more closely related to Krishnapithecus krishnaii from the Late Miocene of India. Currently then, Yuanmoupithecus represents the earliest known definitively identified hylobatid and the only member of the clade predating the Pleistocene. It extends the fossil record of hylobatids back to 7–8 Ma and fills a critical gap in the evolutionary history of hominoids that has up until now remained elusive. Even so, molecular estimates of a divergence date of hylobatids from other hominoids at about 17–22 Ma signifies that there is still a substantial gap in the fossil record of more than 10 million years that needs to be filled in order to document the biogeographic origins and early evolution of hylobatids.
... Crown catarrhines include two main extant clades distinguished at the superfamily rank: Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) and apes and humans (Hominoidea). Earliest stem catarrhines have been reported from the latest Eocene (34.5e29.5 Ma) of Afro-Arabia (Seiffert, 2006(Seiffert, , 2012Seiffert et al., 2010). In turn, earliest crown catarrhines (both cercopithecoids and hominoids) date back to the late Oligocene (~25 Ma) of East Africa (Stevens et al., 2013)d in accordance with molecular estimates indicating that the cercopithecoid-hominoid divergence occurred during the Oligocene (Chatterjee et al., 2009;Perelman et al., 2011;Springer et al., 2012;Finstermeier et al., 2013;Pozzi et al., 2014). ...
The small-bodied Miocene catarrhine Pliobates cataloniae (11.6 Ma, Spain) displays a mosaic of catarrhine symplesiomorphies and hominoid synapomorphies that hinders deciphering its phylogenetic relationships. Based on cladistic analyses, it has been interpreted as a stem hominoid or as a pliopithecoid. Intriguingly, the carotid canal orientation of Pliobates was originally described as hylobatid-like. The variation in carotid canal morphology among anthropoid clades shown in previous studies suggests that this structure might be phylogenetically informative. However, its potential for phylogenetic reconstruction among extinct catarrhines remains largely unexplored. Here we quantify the orientation, proportions, and course of the carotid canal in Pliobates, extant anthropoids and other Miocene catarrhines (Epipliopithecus, Victoriapithecus, and Ekembo) using three-dimensional morphometric techniques. We also compute phylogenetic signal and reconstruct the ancestral carotid canal course for main anthropoid clades. Our results reveal that carotid canal morphology embeds strong phylogenetic signal but mostly discriminates between platyrrhines and catarrhines, with an extensive overlap among extant catarrhine families. The analyzed extinct taxa display a quite similar carotid canal morphology more closely resembling that of extant catarrhines. Nevertheless, our results for Pliobates highlight some differences compared with the pliopithecid Epipliopithecus, which displays a somewhat more platyrrhine-like morphology. In contrast, Pliobates appears as derived toward the modern catarrhine condition as the stem cercopithecid Victoriapithecus and the stem hominoid Ekembo, which more closely resemble one another. Moreover, Pliobates appears somewhat derived toward the reconstructed ancestral hominoid morphotype, being more similar than other Miocene catarrhines to the condition of great apes and the hylobatid Symphalangus. Overall, our results rule out previously noted similarities in carotid canal morphology between Pliobates and hylobatids, but do not show particular similarities with pliopithecoids either—as opposed to extant and other extinct catarrhines. Additional analyses will be required to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of Pliobates, particularly given its dental similarities with dendropithecids.
... In addition to hominoids, most evidence indicates that other major advanced catarrhine clades, including pliopithecoids (or pliopithecids) and cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys), also originated in Africa (e.g., Benefit 1993Benefit , 1999Benefit and McCrossin 1997;Harrison and Gu 1999;Benefit and McCrossin 2002;Harrison 2005;Rossie and MacLatchy 2006;Miller et al. 2009;Fleagle 2013). Early stem catarrhines are found in the Late Eocene of North Africa (e.g., Fleagle and Simons 1982;Simons 1987Simons , 1989Simons and Rasmussen 1996;Simons et al. 1999Simons et al. , 2007Seiffert et al. 2000Seiffert et al. , 2010Seiffert and Simons 2001;Begun 2002;Harrison 2005;Seiffert 2012;Fleagle 2013), and are best known from the classic Late Eocene-Early Oligocene quarries of the Fayum, Egypt (e.g., Seiffert et al. 2010;Fleagle 2013;see Fig. 17.1). Molecular data suggest an even earlier origin for the Catarrhini, perhaps as early as *51-38 Ma (Chatterjee et al. 2009;Perelman et al. 2011;Pozzi et al. 2014), and crown catarrhines, Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea, are estimated to have diverged between *38 and 20 Ma (Steiper and Young 2006;Perelman et al. 2011;Pozzi et al. 2014). ...
... In addition to hominoids, most evidence indicates that other major advanced catarrhine clades, including pliopithecoids (or pliopithecids) and cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys), also originated in Africa (e.g., Benefit 1993Benefit , 1999Benefit and McCrossin 1997;Harrison and Gu 1999;Benefit and McCrossin 2002;Harrison 2005;Rossie and MacLatchy 2006;Miller et al. 2009;Fleagle 2013). Early stem catarrhines are found in the Late Eocene of North Africa (e.g., Fleagle and Simons 1982;Simons 1987Simons , 1989Simons and Rasmussen 1996;Simons et al. 1999Simons et al. , 2007Seiffert et al. 2000Seiffert et al. , 2010Seiffert and Simons 2001;Begun 2002;Harrison 2005;Seiffert 2012;Fleagle 2013), and are best known from the classic Late Eocene-Early Oligocene quarries of the Fayum, Egypt (e.g., Seiffert et al. 2010;Fleagle 2013;see Fig. 17.1). Molecular data suggest an even earlier origin for the Catarrhini, perhaps as early as *51-38 Ma (Chatterjee et al. 2009;Perelman et al. 2011;Pozzi et al. 2014), and crown catarrhines, Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea, are estimated to have diverged between *38 and 20 Ma (Steiper and Young 2006;Perelman et al. 2011;Pozzi et al. 2014). ...
This chapter examines hypothesized dispersal events between Africa and Eurasia involving non-cercopithecoid catarrhines, particularly hominoid apes, and reviews the tectonic and climatic events that may have had a role in shaping them. All available evidence points to hominoid origins in Africa by the latest Oligocene, and the earliest evidence for apes outside of Africa in Eurasia occurs at ~17–16 Ma following a tectonic event at ~19 Ma that resulted in a landbridge between these continents through the Arabian Peninsula. Following their initial dispersal into Eurasia, the estimated number of subsequent dispersals between Africa, Asia, and Europe is dependent on the hypothesized phylogeny of these fossil apes. Here, we examined several recent phylogenetic hypotheses that suggest anywhere between one and four hominoid dispersal events between Africa and Eurasia, and a minimum of zero to two ape dispersals between Europe and Asia. The arrival of pongines, and possibly other apes, in Asia most likely occurred during or right after the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (~17–15 Ma), and the extinction of many Asian taxa was probably driven in part by Himalayan tectonic uplift in the Late Miocene (~9–8 Ma), which changed climatic patterns and resulted in the loss of preferred hominoid rainforest habitat. Similarly, climate change in Europe resulting in the loss of preferred habitat almost certainly played a role in European ape extinction.
... The emphasis of other dental and postcranial traits in common with other catarrhines has led to the interpretation of Catopithecus as a stem catarrhine rather than a stem anthropoid Simons et al., 2001;Simons & Rasmussen, 1996). This would suggest that complete symphyseal fusion evolved independently in catarrhines and platyrrhines (Seiffert, 2012;Seiffert, Simons, Fleagle, & Godinot, 2010 Scott, Hogue, et al., 2012) and haplorhines (b, based on Ravosa, 1999 andSeiffert, 2012). Extinct taxa are marked with a dagger ( †). ...
... By implication, complete mandibular fusion may have evolved independently in catarrhines and platyrrhines (Seiffert, 2012;Seiffert et al., 2010). ...
Objectives:
Variation in primate masticatory form and function has been extensively researched through both morphological and experimental studies. As a result, symphyseal fusion in different primate clades has been linked to either the recruitment of vertically directed balancing-side muscle force, the timing and recruitment of transversely directed forces, or both. This study investigates the relationship between jaw muscle activity patterns and morphology in extant primates to make inferences about masticatory function in extinct primates, with implications for understanding the evolution of symphyseal fusion.
Materials and methods:
Three-dimensional mandibular landmark data were collected for 31 extant primates and nine fossil anthropoids and subfossil lemur species. Published electromyography (EMG) data were available for nine of the extant primate species. Partial least squares analysis and phylogenetic partial least squares analysis were used to identify relationships between EMG and jaw shape data and evaluate variation in jaw morphology.
Results:
Primates with partial and complete symphyseal fusion exhibit shape-function patterns associated with the wishboning motor pattern and loading regime, in contrast to shape-function patterns of primates with unfused jaws. All fossil primates examined (except Apidium) exhibit jaw morphologies suggestive of the wishboning motor pattern demonstrated in living anthropoids and indriids.
Discussion:
Partial fusion in Catopithecus, similar to indriids and some subfossil lemurs, may be sufficient to resist, or transfer, some amounts of transversely directed balancing-side muscle force at the symphysis, representing a transition to greater reliance on transverse jaw movement during mastication. Furthermore, possible functional convergences in physiological patterns during chewing (i.e., Archaeolemur) are identified.
... In addition, recent discoveries of basal anthropoid primates from an Early Eocene locality in southern Asia (Bajpai et al. 2008;Rose et al. 2009) and from Middle-Late Eocene North African localities (e.g. Godinot 1994Godinot , 2015Seiffert et al. 2004Seiffert et al. , 2010Seiffert 2010Seiffert , 2012 necessitate the revision of the evolutionary scenario of early anthropoids. The occurrences of early anthropoid fossils from both Eurasia (southern Asia) and Africa indicate the frequent faunal interchanges between the two continents (e.g. ...
... Three species of Propliopithecus have been described, ranging between 4 and 5.7 kilograms, and all are reconstructed as arboreal quadrupeds that subsisted mainly on fruits (Fleagle 2013). The morphologically similar Moeripithecus is now represented by just one specimen from Egypt; material from the Early Oligocene of Oman that was previously referred to that taxon has since been attributed to Propliopithecus (Seiffert et al. 2010). A wealth of fossil data is available for the larger six-to eight-kilogram Aegyptopithecus, revealing that it was a diurnal, sexually dimorphic, adept arboreal quadruped with a diet composed mainly of fruits and leaves (Fleagle 2013). ...
During the Oligocene epoch (34–23 million years ago), fossil primates are known from Africa, Eurasia, North America, and South America. As tectonic events and climate shifts profoundly influenced the composition and connectivity of primate habitats, adapoid and omomyoid groups that had previously thrived throughout the Eocene on northern continents underwent sharp declines in species richness. Primate extinctions across northern landmasses were met with dramatic diversifications further south, as the Oligocene heralded the eventual emergence of major clades still common today. In addition to a proliferation of taxa in previously known strepsirhine and anthropoid groups, this interval has produced important primate fossils from South America, and the earliest fossil evidence of both Old World Monkeys (cercopithecoids) and apes (hominoids).
... As for Titanohyrax, no mandibles of T. tantulus, T. mongereaui, and T. ultimus are known. Concerning of the primate fossil record from the Fayum and of the phylogenetic relationships of early anthropoids (Seiffert et al., 2010; Seiffert, 2012), it is possible to envisage that Markgraf discovered these enigmatic primate specimens ― and also hyracoids, including SMNS 43941 and SMNS 12626b ― in levels stratigraphically situated between the Quarry E (FFZ 2) and the Barite Sandstone which marks the boundary between the lower and upper sequences of the Jebel Qatrani Formation. These levels, which constitute the upper part of the lower sequence, are represented by more than 50 meters of sediments (the " upper gravelly sandstone and upper red sandstone " of Bown & Kraus, 1988). ...
... In the intervening decades, additional fossil evidence has helped rule out the first two possibilities. Postcrania of the earliest African anthropoids (Seiffert and Simons, 2001;Seiffert et al., 2010) and stem anthropoid eosimiids (Gebo et al., 2001) reveal characteristic anthropoid morphology in animals that are of diminutive body size and clearly arboreal. However, the Shanghuang fauna includes haplorhine and stem anthropoid primates of such unexpectedly small size (Gebo, 2004;Gebo et al., 2012a) that decreased body size should also be considered as a possible explanation for the development of anthropoid traits. ...
Objectives:
Comprehensive quantification of the shape and proportions of the medial tibial facet (MTF) of the talus (=astragalus) has been lacking for Primates and their closest relatives. In this study, aspects of MTF form were quantified and employed to test hypotheses about their functional and phylogenetic significance. The following hypotheses influence perceptions of primate evolutionary history but are due for more rigorous assessment: 1) A relatively large MTF distinguishes "prosimians" (strepsirrhines and tarsiers) from anthropoids and non-primate euarchontans; 2) the distinctive form of the "prosimian" MTF is a correlate of locomotor tendencies that emphasize use of vertical and small diameter supports in conjunction with inverted, abducted foot postures; and 3) the "prosimian" MTF form arose along the primate stem lineage and was present in the euprimate common ancestor.
Methods:
Three-dimensional (3D) scanning was used to create scale digital models of tali (n = 378 specimens, 122 species) from which three types of variables capturing aspects of MTF form were computed: 1) MTF area relative to body mass and ectal facet area; 2) MTF shape (elliptical vs. non-elliptical); and 3) MTF dorsal restriction on the talar body (i.e., extensive vs. minimal exposure of non-articular area). Data were analyzed using both phylogenetic and traditional comparative methods including Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares, Ordinary Least Squares, ANCOVA, ANOVA, and Bayesian Ancestral State Reconstruction (ASR).
Results:
Extant "prosimians" are generally distinct from anthropoids and non-primate euarchontans in our quantitative representations of MTF form. MTF area (but not shape or dorsal restriction) correlates with fibular facet angle (FFa) of the talus, which has also been argued to reflect habitual pedal inversion. Among strepsirrhines, taxa that engage in grasp-leaping more frequently/effectively appear to have a relatively larger MTF than less acrobatic taxa. Directional models of evolutionary change better describe the phylogenetic distribution of MTF variation than do other models. ASR shows 1) little change in the MTF along the primate stem, 2) independent evolution of relatively large and dorsoplantarly deep MTFs in basal haplorhines and strepsirrhines, and 3) re-evolution of morphologies similar to non-euprimates in anthropoids.
Conclusions:
Results support the hypothesis that differences in MTF form between anthropoids and "prosimians" reflect greater use of inverted foot postures and grasp-leaping in the latter group. Although fossil "prosimians" do not have the extreme MTF dimensions that characterize many extant acrobatic leapers, these variables by themselves provide little additional behavioral resolution at the level of individual fossils due to strong phylogenetic signal. ASR suggests that some specialization for use of inverted foot postures (as required in a fine-branch niche) and modifications for grasp-leaping evolved independently in basal strepsirrhine and haplorhine lineages.
