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Positions of the electrodes relative to the three-dimensional model and endocranial cast of the skull of a pointer dog: (A) lateral, (B) anterior and (C) superior views, image by Kálmán Czeibert. Placement of the electrodes (Fz–Cz: frontal and central midline; F8–F7: right and left electrodes placed on the zygomatic arch; Ref: reference electrode or G2; Gnd: ground electrode or G1). In this study, the statistical analysis was performed with the Fz data only. All other electrodes were merely used to aid sleep stage scoring.
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Subjective sleep disturbances are reported by humans with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, no consistent objective findings related to sleep disturbances led to the removal of sleep problems from ADHD diagnostic criteria. Dogs have been used as a model for human ADHD with questionnaires validated for this purpose. Also, the...
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Existing automatic sleep stage detection methods predominantly use convolutional neural network classifiers (CNNs) trained on features extracted from single-modality signals such as electroencephalograms (EEG). On the other hand, multimodal approaches propose very complexly stacked network structures with multiple CNN branches merged by a fully con...
Citations
... Berns et al. pioneered the use of fMRI in awake, nonrestrained dogs in 2012 [21], and in the following year, Kujala and colleagues were the first to successfully deploy non-invasive EEG with non-sedated dogs [22]. Further developments included the investigation of a range of cognitive processes and their neural underpinnings such as executive functioning [23], visual [22,24], auditory [25,26], and olfactory [27] processing, social cognition [28], learning [29] and sleep [30,31]. While the field of canine fMRI has received increasing scientific attention, noninvasive canine EEG has eluded similar treatment. ...
... Regarding a different association with sleep quality, Carreiro et al. [31] investigated the relation between sleep activity and owner-rated hyperactivity and found that dogs rated as more hyperactive and impulsive demonstrated less total sleep time, a reduced percentage of REM sleep, and lower spindle density compared to dogs rated as less hyperactive and impulsive. Moreover, owner-rated hyperactivity and impulsivity were associated with increased wakefulness after sleep onset and greater sleep fragmentation. ...
... As with olfaction, questions of cognitive control not only inform us about the neural underpinnings of canine cognition but also have significant practical value in the way humans communicate with and train dogs. Pre-sleep intensive activity, time and location of sleep, owner-rated hyperactivity [31,45] Alpha frequency power Age, cooperation, attachment [50,54] Beta and delta frequency power ...
The emerging field of canine cognitive neuroscience uses neuroimaging tools such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to map the cognitive processes of dogs to neural substrates in their brain. Within the past decade, the non-invasive use of EEG has provided real-time, accessible, and portable neuroimaging insight into canine cognitive processes. To promote systematization and create an overview of framings, methods and findings for future work, we provide a systematic review of non-invasive canine EEG studies (N=22), dissecting their study makeup, technical setup, and analysis frameworks and highlighting emerging trends. We further propose new directions of development, such as the standardization of data structures and integrating predictive modeling with descriptive statistical approaches. Our review ends by underscoring the advances and advantages of EEG-based canine cognitive neuroscience and the potential for accessible canine neuroimaging to inform both fundamental sciences as well as practical applications for cognitive neuroscience, working dogs, and human-canine interactions.
... Some signs of hyperactivity/impulsivity described in the literature include difficulty in maintaining stillness, excessive vocalization, constant movement, persistent attentionseeking and play, prompt reaction or anticipation to events, impatience with waiting, less than 8 h of sleep a day [16] and poorer sleep quality [74], intolerance to delayed reward [43], excessive object destruction, lack of self-control (such as uninhibited biting), hypersensitivity (reaction to stimuli that are permanently present in the environment), lack of food satiety [16], and communication difficulties with other humans and dogs [2,5]. ...
Similar to humans, dogs could suffer an Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder-like syndrome (ADHD-like). In fact, several studies highlight the use of dogs as a model for studying ADHD. This condition entails behavioral problems expressed through impulsivity, attention issues, hyperactivity, and/or aggression, compromising the quality of life for both the caregiver and the dog. The pathophysiology of ADHD-like is complex and is associated with dysregulation of various neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. The expression of ADHD-like behavior in dogs would appear to depend on a classical gene–environment interaction as is the case with many neurological disorders in humans. In addition to the described symptomatology, ADHD-like dogs can exhibit strong comorbidities with compulsive behaviors, aggressiveness, inappropriate elimination and fearfulness, in addition to epilepsy, foreign body ingestion, and pruritus. In spite of the fact that there is no veterinary consensus about the diagnosis of ADHD-like, some validated questionnaires could be helpful, but these cannot be used as a unique diagnostic tool. The use of drugs, such as fluoxetine, in addition to an adequate environmental enrichment, relaxation protocols, and behavior modification can achieve an adequate quality of life for both the dog and caregivers.
... The perhaps most accessible of those methods is canine polysomnography (EEG measurement during sleep), since the relative absence of motor activity during sleep accounts for a low incidence of artifacts even in untrained animals. Over the last few years, research in dogs (Kis et al. 2017c;Iotchev et al. 2017Iotchev et al. , 2020a has corroborated the notion that brain activity during sleep correlates with awake cognitive performance (Genzel et al. 2014), behavior (Carreiro et al. 2023), as well as affective and mood states (Kis et al. 2017b;Kiss et al. 2020). This either reflects sleep-specific contributions to information processing, e.g., sleep-dependent memory consolidation (Genzel et al. 2014), or the general state of mechanisms that manifest in both sleep and waking EEG (Chen et al. 2016). ...
The shape of the cranium is one of the most notable physical changes induced in domestic dogs through selective breeding and is measured using the cephalic index (CI). High CI (a ratio of skull width to skull length > 60) is characterized by a short muzzle and flat face and is referred to as brachycephaly. Brachycephalic dogs display some potentially harmful changes in neuroanatomy, and there are implications for differences in behavior, as well. The path from anatomy to cognition, however, has not been charted in its entirety. Here, we report that sleep-physiological markers of white-matter loss (high delta power, low frontal spindle frequency, i.e., spindle waves/s), along with a spectral profile for REM (low beta, high delta) associated with low intelligence in humans, are each linked to higher CI values in the dog. Additionally, brachycephalic subjects spent more time sleeping, suggesting that the sleep apnea these breeds usually suffer from increases daytime sleepiness. Within sleep, more time was spent in the REM sleep stage than in non-REM, while REM duration was correlated positively with the number of REM episodes across dogs. It is currently not clear if the patterns of sleep and sleep-stage duration are mainly caused by sleep-impairing troubles in breathing and thermoregulation, present a juvenile-like sleeping profile, or are caused by neuro-psychological conditions secondary to the effects of brachycephaly, e.g., frequent REM episodes are known to appear in human patients with depression. While future studies should more directly address the interplay of anatomy, physiology, and behavior within a single experiment, this represents the first description of how the dynamics of the canine brain covary with CI, as measured in resting companion dogs using a non-invasive sleep EEG methodology. The observations suggest that the neuroanatomical changes accompanying brachycephaly alter neural systems in a way that can be captured in the sleep EEG, thus supporting the utility of the latter in the study of canine brain health and function.
... included the investigation of a range of cognitive processes and their neural underpinnings such as executive functioning [24], visual [25,61], auditory [5,17], and olfactory [50] processing, social cognition [23], learning [88] and sleep [19,56]. While the field of canine fMRI has received increasing scientific attention, non-invasive canine EEG has eluded similar treatment. ...
... On a different association with sleep quality, Carreiro et al. [19] investigated the relation between sleep activity and owner-rated hyperactivity and found that dogs rated as more hyperactive and impulsive demonstrated less total sleep time, a reduced percentage of REM sleep, and lower spindle density compared to dogs rated as less hyperactive and impulsive. Moreover, owner-rated hyperactivity and impulsivity were associated with increased wakefulness after sleep onset and greater sleep fragmentation. ...
A bstract
The emerging field of canine cognitive neuroscience uses neuroimaging tools such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to map the cognitive processes of dogs to neural substrates in their brain. Within the past decade, the non-invasive use of EEG has provided real-time, accessible, and portable neuroimaging insight into canine cognitive processes. To promote systematization and create an overview of framings, methods and findings for future work, we provide a systematic review of non-invasive canine EEG studies (N=22), dissecting their study makeup, technical setup, and analysis frameworks and highlighting emerging trends. We further propose new directions of development, such as the standardization of data structures and integrating predictive modeling with descriptive statistical approaches. Our review ends by underscoring the advances and advantages of EEG-based canine cognitive neuroscience and the potential for accessible canine neuroimaging to inform both fundamental sciences as well as practical applications for cognitive neuroscience, working dogs, and human-canine interactions.
The sleep-wake cycle represents a crucial physiological process essential for maintaining homeostasis and promoting individual growth. In dogs, alterations in sleep patterns associated with age and dog’s correlation with temperament factors, such as nervousness, have been reported, and there is an increasing demand for precise monitoring of sleep and physical activity in dogs. The present study aims to develop an analysis method for measuring sleep-wake patterns and physical activity in dogs by utilizing an accelerometer and a smartphone. By analyzing time series data collected from the accelerometer attached to the dog's collar, a comprehensive sleep and activity analysis model was constructed. This model classified the activity level into seven classes and effectively highlighted the variations in sleep-activity patterns. Two classes with lower activity levels were considered as sleep, while other five levels were regarded as wake based on the rate of occurrence. This protocol of data acquisition and analysis provides a methodology that enables accurate and extended evaluation of both sleep and physical activity in dogs.
