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Plan and features of Hilazon Tachtit Cave. ( A ) Plan of the cave indicating the excavation area. ( B ) The Natufian features at Hilazon Tachtit Cave including the burial pits (pit I, II, and III), Structure A, and Structure B. The burial was located in structure A (Photograph by N. Hilger, Tel Aviv, Israel).
Source publication
The Natufians of the southern Levant (15,000–11,500 cal BP) underwent pronounced socioeconomic changes associated with the onset of sedentism and the shift from a foraging to farming lifestyle. Excavations at the 12,000-year-old Natufian cave site, Hilazon Tachtit (Israel), have revealed a grave that provides a rare opportunity to investigate the i...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... prehistoric activity inside the cave was spatially confined to a shallow depression formed by the natural contours of the bedrock in the middle of the cave ( 30 m 2 ). The excavations unearthed 2 small structures (ca. 1 m in diameter) built of undressed, limestone cobbles (Fig. 2). Both structures are cir- cular and are delineated by large stones transported from outside the cave and positioned along the natural outline of the bedrock. Next to the structures are 3 small burial pits (Pit I, Pit II, and Pit III, 0.5 m 2 each) that occupy an area of 5 m 2 to a depth of 80 cm (Fig. 2). The pits contained the remains ...
Context 2
... built of undressed, limestone cobbles (Fig. 2). Both structures are cir- cular and are delineated by large stones transported from outside the cave and positioned along the natural outline of the bedrock. Next to the structures are 3 small burial pits (Pit I, Pit II, and Pit III, 0.5 m 2 each) that occupy an area of 5 m 2 to a depth of 80 cm (Fig. 2). The pits contained the remains of at least 25 individuals representing an array of ages. In Pit III, some bodies had to be pushed aside to squeeze a number of individuals (n 5) into the small space. Apart from the hands and feet, the skeletons were not articulated, although size and age estimates suggest that elements of single ...
Context 3
... bones were missing, probably because of historical disturbance. The scat- tered bones of a newborn were found in the area of the missing pelvis and it appears that the newborn and the young adult, possibly the mother, were buried together. The 2 other complete burials belong to an earlier phase and are interred in graves within structures A and B (Fig. 2). The burial in structure B postdates the use of the structure, while the burial of the individual interred in Structure A, the topic of the present discussion, predates the use of Structure A. Thus, it appears that this particular burial is the earliest Natufian manifestation on ...
Citations
... Likewise, ornaments have been a central aspect in the discussion of early evidence of symbolic behavior among diverse human populations (Kuhn and Stiner 2006;Vanhaeren et al. 2013; Bar-Yosef Mayer and Bosch 2019;Vanhaeren et al. 2019;Shunkov et al. 2020;d'Errico et al. 2021;Martisius et al. 2022;Rigaud et al. 2023). Moreover, their presence in contexts of funerary practices has made it possible to go beyond the scale of group mapping, providing bases for discussion on the treatment related to age, sex, and social position of some individuals (Vanhaeren and d'Errico 2001, 2002, 2005Grosman et al. 2008;Gravel-Miguel et al. 2023). ...
The present study aims at a better understanding of personal ornaments during the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic transitions. The approach consists of a combination of the shell beads and pendants from Santa Maira (Alacant) and the information from the Mediterranean façade of the Iberian Peninsula, including the Ebro valley, allowing a systematic evaluation of species richness from a spatio-temporal perspective. An assessment of access to the source and its impact on diversity was also carried out. The results show a continuity between the Late Paleolithic and the Epipaleolithic, as well as a period of cultural break with the Mesolithic. Similar patterns have been documented during the same periods from lithic production studies and may indicate a change in social interactions and/or cultural boundaries.
... The symbolic use of tortoises became notably more prominent during the Late Epipaleolithic, as evident in various Natufian sites. At Hilazon Tachtit Cave, approximately 70 tortoise shells were discovered in association with a burial suggested to be that of a shaman ( 66 ). Another example is the decorated monolithic limestone featuring a schematic depiction of a tortoise found in building 2 at the Natufian site of Wadi Hammeh 27 ( 96 ). ...
... Thus far, Manot Cave is the only site in the Levant to yield clear evidence for the existence of a communal ritual compound in the Upper Paleolithic. Until this discovery at Manot Cave, it was generally believed that ritual and communal spaces in the Levant, either in caves or in the open air, began in the late Epipaleolithic Natufian culture ( 66 ). The current study demonstrates that the first step toward communal ritual ceremony was made in the Levant at least by the EUP. ...
Identifying communal rituals in the Paleolithic is of scientific importance, as it reflects
the expression of collective identity and the maintenance of group cohesion. This study
provides evidence indicating the practice of deep cave collective rituals in the Levant
during the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period. It is demonstrated that these gatherings
occurred within a distinct ritual compound and were centered around an engraved
object in the deepest part of Manot Cave, a pivotal EUP site in southwest Asia. The
ritual compound, segregated from the living areas, encompasses a large gallery partitioned
by a cluster of remarkable speleothems. Within this gallery, an engraved boulder
stands out, displaying geometric signs suggesting a unique representation of a tortoise.
Isotopic analysis of calcite crusts on the boulder’s grooves revealed alignment with values
found in speleothems from the cave dated to ~37 to 35 ka BP. Additionally, meticulous
shape analysis of the grooves’ cross-section
and the discernible presence of microlinear
scratches on the grooves’ walls confirmed their anthropogenic origin. Examination of
stalagmite laminae (36 ka BP) near the engraved boulder revealed a significant presence
of wood ash particles within. This finding provides evidence for using fire to illuminate
the dark, deep part of the cave during rituals. Acoustic tests conducted in various cave
areas indicate that the ritual compound was well suited for communal gatherings, facilitating
conversations, speeches, and hearing. Our results underscore the critical role of
collective practices centered around a symbolic object in fostering a functional social
network within the regional EUP communities.
... The symbolic use of tortoises became notably more prominent during the Late Epipaleolithic, as evident in various Natufian sites. At Hilazon Tachtit Cave, approximately 70 tortoise shells were discovered in association with a burial suggested to be that of a shaman ( 66 ). Another example is the decorated monolithic limestone featuring a schematic depiction of a tortoise found in building 2 at the Natufian site of Wadi Hammeh 27 ( 96 ). ...
... Thus far, Manot Cave is the only site in the Levant to yield clear evidence for the existence of a communal ritual compound in the Upper Paleolithic. Until this discovery at Manot Cave, it was generally believed that ritual and communal spaces in the Levant, either in caves or in the open air, began in the late Epipaleolithic Natufian culture ( 66 ). The current study demonstrates that the first step toward communal ritual ceremony was made in the Levant at least by the EUP. ...
Identifying communal rituals in the Paleolithic is of scientific importance, as it reflects the expression of collective identity and the maintenance of group cohesion. This study provides evidence indicating the practice of deep cave collective rituals in the Levant during the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) period. It is demonstrated that these gatherings occurred within a distinct ritual compound and were centered around an engraved object in the deepest part of Manot Cave, a pivotal EUP site in southwest Asia. The ritual compound, segregated from the living areas, encompasses a large gallery partitioned by a cluster of remarkable speleothems. Within this gallery, an engraved boulder stands out, displaying geometric signs suggesting a unique representation of a tortoise. Isotopic analysis of calcite crusts on the boulder’s grooves revealed alignment with values found in speleothems from the cave dated to ~37 to 35 ka BP. Additionally, meticulous shape analysis of the grooves’ cross-section and the discernible presence of microlinear scratches on the grooves’ walls confirmed their anthropogenic origin. Examination of stalagmite laminae (36 ka BP) near the engraved boulder revealed a significant presence of wood ash particles within. This finding provides evidence for using fire to illuminate the dark, deep part of the cave during rituals. Acoustic tests conducted in various cave areas indicate that the ritual compound was well suited for communal gatherings, facilitating conversations, speeches, and hearing. Our results underscore the critical role of collective practices centered around a symbolic object in fostering a functional social network within the regional EUP communities.
... These insights are clearly relevant for the post-Levantine Aurignacian, as creative manifestations from this part of the world continue to be rare until the advent of the Natufian culture at the end of the Pleistocene ( Bar-Yosef, 1998;Edwards et al., 2019;Grosman et al., 2017;Grosman & Belfer-Cohen, 2023;Major, 2018; but see Yaroshevich et al., 2016 for earlier artistic manifestations than the Natufian), while in parts of western Europe the production of images and figurines flourished in post-Aurignacian times. Not surprisingly, evidence for ritual and shamanism strongly re-emerged in the Natufian of the southern Levant, alongside the new burst of imagery items (Grosman et al., 2008;Grosman & Munro, 2016). ...
Despite one hundred years of intensive prehistoric research in the southern Levant, and particularly within the modern
boundaries of the State of Israel, no decorated Upper Paleolithic caves were found in the region. Mobile imagery items
are also altogether absent or rare. This frustrating state of affairs is completely unexpected, since the Levantine Upper
Paleolithic Aurignacian culture bears striking resemblance to its depictions-rich counterpart in western Europe, and
mutual contacts between Levantine and European groups seem likely. Moreover, natural caves are found in abundance
in the Levant, and some were encountered by Levantine Aurignacian groups. So this absence has nothing to do with
technological or cognitive human capabilities, nor with the lack of potential caves. In this paper we explore this intrigu
ing conundrum, examining it in the light of human-animal relationships, prey availability and extinctions, and human
ontological and cosmological beliefs. We will do our best to tie all these pieces of the puzzle together in an attempt to
shed new light on the mysterious absence of parietal and mobile art from the Upper Paleolithic Levant.
... The most comprehensive ritual practice is possibly the possible worship of the tortoise, as suggested by Major (2018), "The scute pattern on the tortoise carapace, in particular, appears to have formed the basis of important ritual beliefs across the Natufian culture area" (Edwards et al. 2019: 610). see the 90 tortoises' shells (Grosman et al. 2008). More abstract worship is reflected by the appearance of a single standing stone monolith at Rosh Zin (Henry 1976), of the narrow type of stele presenting a male divinity, and possibly also a stele of the wide type at Har Harif site, presenting female divinity (Avner 2002(Avner : 81, 2018: Table 2, fig. ...
An unusually situated complex of Natufian rock-cut installations in Nahal Oren Cave in Mt. Carmel, Israel, not associated with human remains, overlooking the large Late Natufian site, is first presented here. The rock-cut installations are typologically dated to the late Natufian, based on identical installations revealed in archaeological excavations of eight sites in sealed late Natufian complexes. Two similar complexes, carved in an alcove and atop a large boulder above Late Natufian burials, were also noticed at the nearby Raqefet Cave. The heart of the complex is a small straight-side basin, possibly an eating bowl mold, carved in the rock about two meters above floor level. It is suggested that the Nahal Oren Cave and the two Raqefet Cave complexes were ritual placements for some spirit or deity. The study describes the components of the three complexes, contrasting them with other similar Natufian rock-cut installations producing cereal food counterparts in domestic contexts and arguing that their features and placemen attest to their unique possible ritual function of offering cereal meals.
... The most comprehensive ritual practice is possibly the possible worship of the tortoise, as suggested by Major (2018), "The scute pattern on the tortoise carapace, in particular, appears to have formed the basis of important ritual beliefs across the Natufian culture area" (Edwards et al. 2019: 610). see the 90 tortoises' shells (Grosman et al. 2008). More abstract worship is reflected by the appearance of a single standing stone monolith at Rosh Zin (Henry 1976), of the narrow type of stele presenting a male divinity, and possibly also a stele of the wide type at Har Harif site, presenting female divinity (Avner 2002(Avner : 81, 2018: Table 2, fig. ...
An unusually situated complex of Natufian rock-cut installations in Nahal Oren Cave in Mt. Carmel, Israel, not associated with human remains, overlooking the large Late Natufian site, is first presented here. The rock-cut installations are typologically dated to the late Natufian, based on identical installations revealed in archaeological excavations of eight sites in sealed late Natufian complexes. Two similar complexes, carved in an alcove and atop a large boulder above Late Natufian burials, were also noticed at the nearby Raqefet Cave. The heart of the complex is a small straight-side basin, possibly an eating bowl mold, carved in the rock about two meters above floor level. It is suggested that the Nahal Oren Cave and the two Raqefet Cave complexes were ritual placements for some spirit or deity. The study describes the components of the three complexes, contrasting them with other similar Natufian rock-cut installations producing cereal food counterparts in domestic contexts and arguing that their features and placemen attest to their unique possible ritual function of offering cereal meals.
... The most comprehensive ritual practice is possibly the possible worship of the tortoise, as suggested by Major (2018), "The scute pattern on the tortoise carapace, in particular, appears to have formed the basis of important ritual beliefs across the Natufian culture area" (Edwards et al. 2019: 610). see the 90 tortoises' shells (Grosman et al. 2008). More abstract worship is reflected by the appearance of a single standing stone monolith at Rosh Zin (Henry 1976), of the narrow type of stele presenting a male divinity, and possibly also a stele of the wide type at Har Harif site, presenting female divinity (Avner 2002(Avner : 81, 2018: Table 2, fig. ...
An unusually situated complex of Natufian rock-cut installations in Nahal Oren Cave in Mt. Carmel, Israel, not associated with human remains, overlooking the large Late Natufian site, is first presented here. The rock-cut installations are typologically dated to the late Natufian, based on identical installations revealed in archaeological excavations of eight sites in sealed late Natufian complexes. Two similar complexes, carved in an alcove and atop a large boulder above Late Natufian burials, were also noticed at the nearby Raqefet Cave. The heart of the complex is a small straight-side basin, possibly an eating bowl mold, carved in the rock about two meters above floor level. It is suggested that the Nahal Oren Cave and the two Raqefet Cave complexes were ritual placements for some spirit or deity. The study describes the components of the three complexes, contrasting them with other similar Natufian rock-cut installations producing cereal food counterparts in domestic contexts and arguing that their features and placemen attest to their unique possible ritual function for offering cereal meals.
... As such, yet another presentation of the same materials is superfluous, especially as even the best archaeological sources for these individuals are often ambiguous. This is best exemplified by the case of prehistoric human burials attributed to shamans (e.g., Grosman et al. 2008), where the wearing of sha manic attire and the presence of sacra do not necessarily mean that an individual was a shaman (cf. Stépanoff 2015.171). ...
Recent fieldwork at Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) Göbeklitepe has revealed a life-size limestone statue of a wild boar in Special Building D, which, alongside discoveries from nearby contemporaneous sites, broadens our understanding of late hunter-forager communities, including the presence of (archaeologically speaking) invisible decision-makers. Evidence points to three groups from which these charismatic leaders could have emerged: storytellers, hunters and ritual experts. An important function of these leaders was to uphold traditional values in the face of changing lifeways in the Early Holocene, a period referred to here as the ‘hunter-gatherer crisis’. This paper also includes a summary of recent excavation results from Göbeklitepe.
... Однако чаще всего археологические источники по проявлению шаманизма в древних культурах являются предметами погребального инвентаря, которые исследователи интерпретируют как детали шаманских костюмов, либо как атрибуты шаманской практики. Примером «шаманского» погребения периода верхнего палеолита является захоронение пожилой женщины с костными остатками разных видов животных, в т. ч. с многочисленными полными черепашьими панцирями и отдельной ступней человека (Grosman et al. 2008). ...
The paper analyzes artefacts from the Late Neolithic child burial of the Ust-Zelinda-2 site (Ust-Ilimsk District, Irkutsk Region, Russia). Some features of the burial practice (burial in a pit, secondary burial, manipulation with a skull, burial with an animal) and a rather diverse set of grave goods allow to consider the grave as a complex with traces of a non-typical handling of child’s remains. The central place in the complex was given to a paddle carved from moose antler. It was placed in the “belly” area of the buried. Technical-technological analysis, wear traces as well as ethnographic examples of Siberian ritual attributes allow to consider it as a shamanic beater. Analysis of the position of the moose teeth in the burial suggests, hypothetically, the existence of another shamanic item - a tambourine, where teeth played the role of sound pendants, as well as allows to reconstruct its shape and dimensions. A research of internal features of ethnographic tambourines suggested an evolution line of sound pendants in tambourines from animal teeth to metal items. A complex analysis of all data defined the buried child as a person with special social status and the set of grave goods as the child’s heritage. At present time, this set of shamanic attributes is the earliest one in the Baikal Region and dates to the middle — the second part of IV Millennium BC.
... At the Maritime Archaic cemetery at Port au Choix in Newfoundland, some 237 great auk bills were excavated and many were recovered from a single grave argued to belong to a shaman (Tuck 1976;Jelsma 2000). Within the Levant, the presence of a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) wing in the burial of a possible shaman at Hilazon Tachtit dated to 12,400-12,000 cal BP illustrates the symbolic role of birds in the Early Natu an (Grosman et al. 2008). At the MPPNB (Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) site of Nahal Efe, remains of nine raptors were recovered from the base of a storage pit (Alcàntara et al. 2023). ...
This paper describes analyses of avifauna from Levantine Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites at contrasting scales. Firstly, we present avian osteological data from a sequence of occupation at Shubayqa, in northeast Jordan, illustrating changing human-bird-environment interactions over 4000 years offering interpretations of environmental change on avifaunal communities and nature of multi-species relationships at this wetland environment. Secondly, we compare published avifaunal assemblages to investigate the nature of bird-human relationships across a broader temporal and geographical span. During the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene our species gradually transitioned to an agricultural mode of subsistence. Whilst explanations of long-term human behavioural dynamics are frequently sought, disparity between correlation and causation obscures interpretation of trajectories in the human past. People hunted birds for subsistence but extensive evidence for the symbolic importance of birds suggests complex relationships between species. Avifaunal evidence, therefore, presents insights into two commonly suggested primary causes for the shift from hunter-foragers to agriculturalists – resource pressure and symbolic expression. Here we argue that actions of humans gradually modified the landscape and ecological system but this was not a reactionary response to resource stress. Nevertheless, this resulted in the productivity of the landscape increasing and allowed further intensification. Feathers and talons of birds were used for millennia preceding the shift to agriculture and the increase in bird hunting towards the end of the Pleistocene cannot be explained by the increased role of birds in the symbolic realm.
