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Phylogenetic tree depicting the evolutionary relationship between cephalopods and the more commonly studied vertebrates, corvids, and great apes (image sources: © CCBY-SA: gastropod, echinoderm, chiton, reptile ancestor; © CCBY-NC-ND: cuttlefish; © CCBYSA-NC: worm ancestor; © jenesesimre, stock.adobe.com: octopus, squid, arthropod, bivalve; © artbalitskiy, stock.adobe. com: ape, corvid, fish, amphibian, reptile).
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The soft-bodied cephalopods including octopus, cuttlefish, and squid are broadly considered to be the most cognitively advanced group of invertebrates. Previous research has demonstrated that these large-brained molluscs possess a suite of cognitive attributes that are comparable to those found in some vertebrates, including highly developed percep...
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... beyond vertebrates, new ndings amongst invertebrates provides further evidence that intelligence has evolved independently multiple times. A substantial amount of this evidence is emerging from one major group of invertebrates, the coleoid cephalopods, which diverged radically from vertebrates over 550 million years ago (Fig. 1). The coleoid cephalopods (henceforth cephalopods), which include octopus, cuttlesh, and squid have the most centralised and largest nervous system of all invertebrates, with a brain to body size ratio greater than most sh and reptiles (Packard, 1972;Nixon & Young, 2003). Such ndings are intriguing given that many of the molluscan ...
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... required to support the emergence of complex cognition because they diverged from the vertebrate lineage over 550 million years ago. The common ancestor of cephalopods and vertebrates was substantially more rudimentary than the common ancestor of birds and mammals and likely resembled a wormlike creature with a simple nervous system (Fig. 1). Consequently, cephalopods deviate drastically from vertebrates and thus exhibit signicantly different characteristics from the more commonly studied large-brained vertebrates. Specically, they have a highly carnivorous diet, a brief developmental period, and reduced longevity. Comparative data between cephalopods and the more ...
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... beyond vertebrates, new findings amongst invertebrates provides further evidence that intelligence has evolved independently multiple times. A substantial amount of this evidence is emerging from one major group of invertebrates, the coleoid cephalopods, which diverged radically from vertebrates over 550 million years ago (Fig. 1). The coleoid cephalopods (henceforth cephalopods), which include octopus, cuttlefish, and squid have the most centralised and largest nervous system of all invertebrates, with a brain to body size ratio greater than most fish and reptiles (Packard, 1972;Nixon & Young, 2003). Such findings are intriguing given that many of the molluscan ...
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... required to support the emergence of complex cognition because they diverged from the vertebrate lineage over 550 million years ago. The common ancestor of cephalopods and vertebrates was substantially more rudimentary than the common ancestor of birds and mammals and likely resembled a wormlike creature with a simple nervous system (Fig. 1). Consequently, cephalopods deviate drastically from vertebrates and thus exhibit significantly different characteristics from the more commonly studied large-brained vertebrates. Specifically, they have a highly carnivorous diet, a brief developmental period, and reduced longevity. Comparative data between cephalopods and the more ...
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The Cambrian information revolution describes how biotically driven increases in signals, sensory abilities, behavioral interactions, and landscape spatial complexity drove a rapid increase in animal cognition concurrent with the Cambrian radiation. Here, we compare cognitive complexity in Cambrian and post-Cambrian marine ecosystems, documenting c...
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... The recent understanding of the complexity of its genome and related physiological adaptations, e.g., [23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] further renewed interest in these animals and their biological plasticity. In addition, studies on the abilities and behavioural flexibility of cephalopods and the findings that these appear to be linked to fundamental behavioural traits-formerly investigated primarily in vertebrate animals-promoted a new era of studies about the cognitive abilities of these animals [7,9,11,[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. These traits include neophobia, problem solving, learning, and the social domain [43][44][45][46], to mention some. ...
By presenting individual Octopus vulgaris with an extractive foraging problem with a puzzle box, we examined the possible correlation between behavioural performances (e.g., ease of adaptation to captive conditions, prevalence of neophobic and neophilic behaviours, and propensity to learn individually or by observing conspecifics), biotic (body and brain size, age, sex) and abiotic (seasonality and place of origin) factors. We found more neophilic animals showing shorter latencies to approach the puzzle box and higher probability of solving the task; also, shorter times to solve the task were correlated with better performance on the individual learning task. However, the most neophilic octopuses that approached the puzzle box more quickly did not reach the solution earlier than other individuals, suggesting that strong neophilic tendency may lead to suboptimal performance at some stages of the problem-solving process. In addition, seasonal and environmental characteristics of location of origin appear to influence the rate of expression of individual traits central to problem solving. Overall, our analysis provides new insights into the traits associated with problem solving in invertebrates and highlights the presence of adaptive mechanisms that promote population-level changes in octopuses’ behavioural traits.
... Cephalopods and mammals are at the top of anatomical neuronal complexity (see also Moroz 2018). The "primate of the sea" Octopus holds the record in invertebrate "intelligence" (Schnell et al. 2021): its CNS consists of ~ 500 million neurons (Hochner et al. 2006), with a complex connectome of ~ 25 million neurons in the vertical lobe (Bidel et al. 2023), one of the cephalopod's integrative centers. The indispensable reference system for intelligence, the human brain, is composed of 86 billion neurons and 85 billion non-neuronal cells (glia and others) (Herculano-Houzel 2009), with an estimated 100-120 trillion chemical synapses (1000-10,000 synapses per neuron, i.e., comparable with Drosophila in the density of synaptic wiring). ...
Neurons underpin cognition in animals. However, the roots of animal cognition are elusive from both mechanistic and evolutionary standpoints. Two conceptual frameworks both highlight and promise to address these challenges. First, we discuss evidence that animal neural and other integrative systems evolved more than once (convergent evolution) within basal metazoan lineages, giving us unique experiments by Nature for future studies. The most remarkable examples are neural systems in ctenophores and neuroid-like systems in placozoans and sponges. Second, in addition to classical synaptic wiring, a chemical connectome mediated by hundreds of signal molecules operates in tandem with neurons and is the most information-rich source of emerging properties and adaptability. The major gap—dynamic, multifunctional chemical micro-environments in nervous systems—is not understood well. Thus, novel tools and information are needed to establish mechanistic links between orchestrated, yet cell-specific, volume transmission and behaviors. Uniting what we call chemoconnectomics and analyses of the cellular bases of behavior in basal metazoan lineages arguably would form the foundation for deciphering the origins and early evolution of elementary cognition and intelligence.
... Given that nematodes will endure an aversive stimulus or perceived threat to reach a positive stimulus (Ghosh et al. 2016;Ishihara et al. 2002;Shinkai et al. 2011), then they must join the likes of insects (Gibbons et al. 2022a, b) and crabs (Appel and Elwood 2009;Elwood and Appel 2009) as animals supposedly capable of subjectively experiencing emotions. This idea is part of a broader thesis that flexible behaviours are indicative of conscious awareness (Baars 1988;Bayne et al. 2019;Birch et al. 2020;Dehaene 2014;Droege 2017;Droege and Braithwaite 2015;Droege et al. 2021;Edelman and Seth 2009;Griffin 2013;Grinde 2013;Kabadayi and Osvath 2017;Kanai et al. 2019;Mather 2008;Mikhalevich et al. 2017;Perry and Chittka 2019;Rosslenbroich 2014;Schnell et al. 2021;Seth 2009). ...
Deciphering the neural basis of subjective experience remains one of the great challenges in the natural sciences. The structural complexity and the limitations around invasive experimental manipulations of the human brain have impeded progress towards this goal. While animals cannot directly report first-person subjective experiences, their ability to exhibit flexible behaviours such as motivational trade-offs are generally considered evidence of sentience. The worm Caenorhabditis elegans affords the unique opportunity to describe the circuitry underlying subjective experience at a single cell level as its whole neural connectome is known and moreover, these animals exhibit motivational trade-offs. We started with the premise that these worms were sentient and then sought to understand the neurons that were both necessary and sufficient for a motivational trade-off involving the rewarding experience of food and the negative experience of an aversive odour. A simple hierarchical network consisting of two chemosensory neurons and three interneurons was found to produce an output to motoneurons that enabled worms to respond in a contextually appropriate manner to an aversive odour according to the worm's hunger state. Given that this circuitry is like that found in the human spinal cord, retina, and primary visual cortex, three regions which are neither necessary nor sufficient for subjective experience, we conclude that motivational trade-offs are not a criterion for subjective experience in worms. Furthermore, once the neural substrate for a behaviour is described, we question the explanatory role of subjective experience in behaviour.
... Cephalopods, globally distributed marine mollusks, predominantly inhabit the deep sea. Characterized by their sophisticated nervous systems and adept swimming abilities, they prove challenging to be captured in large amounts [1][2][3]. As consumer demand surpasses the quantity caught, research into the artificial breeding of cephalopods and their growth and development becomes increasingly critical. ...
As the quality of life improves, there is an increasing demand for nutrition-rich marine organisms like fish, shellfish, and cephalopods. To address this, artificial cultivation of these organisms is being explored along with ongoing research on their growth and development. A case in point is Amphioctopus fangsiao, a highly valued cephalopod known for its tasty meat, nutrient richness, and rapid growth rate. Despite its significance, there is a dearth of studies on the A. fangsiao growth mechanism, particularly of its larvae. In this study, we collected A. fangsiao larvae at 0, 4, 12, and 24 h post-hatching and conducted transcriptome profiling. Our analysis identified 4467, 5099, and 4181 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at respective intervals, compared to the 0 h sample. We further analyzed the expression trends of these DEGs, noting a predominant trend of continuous upregulation. Functional exploration of this trend entailed GO and KEGG functional enrichment along with protein–protein interaction network analyses. We identified GLDC, DUSP14, DPF2, GNAI1, and ZNF271 as core genes, based on their high upregulation rate, implicated in larval growth and development. Similarly, CLTC, MEF2A, PPP1CB, PPP1R12A, and TJP1, marked by high protein interaction numbers, were identified as hub genes and the gene expression levels identified via RNA-seq analysis were validated through qRT-PCR. By analyzing the functions of key and core genes, we found that the ability of A. fangsiao larvae to metabolize carbohydrates, lipids, and other energy substances during early growth may significantly improve with the growth of the larvae. At the same time, muscle related cells in A. fangsiao larvae may develop rapidly, promoting the growth and development of larvae. Our findings provide preliminary insights into the growth and developmental mechanism of A. fangsiao, setting the stage for more comprehensive understanding and broader research into cephalopod growth and development mechanisms.
... Our study provides clear evidence of a reptile species capable of discriminating relative quantities and takes the first step for demonstrating probabilistic reasoning in reptiles. Cephalopods, which possess the most centralized and largest nervous system of all invertebrates and a suite of cognitive attributes that are comparable to some vertebrates, are probably able to complete similar tasks [38]. Such cognitive ability is probably much more widespread than currently known, and future studies focusing on different groups will be essential to understand the evolutionary history of numerical cognition. ...
The ability to discriminate relative quantities, one of the numerical competences, is considered an adaptive trait in uncertain environments. Besides humans, previous studies have reported this capacity in several non-human primates and birds. Here, we test whether red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans) can discriminate different relative quantities. Subjects were first trained to distinguish different stimuli with food reward. Then, they were tested with novel stimulus pairs to demonstrate how they distinguished the stimuli. The results show that most subjects can complete the initial training and use relative quantity rather than absolute quantity to make choices during the testing phase. This study provides behavioural evidence of relative quantity discrimination in a reptile species and suggests that such capacity may be widespread among vertebrates.
... The following four main components can be distinguished here: sensory perception, perception-based cognition, learning, and memory. Each of these groups has a significant impact on the complex octopus cognition [17]. Researches show the octopus' CNS supports an acute and sensitive vision system, good spatial memory, decision-making, and camouflage behaviour [8], but it consists of fewer neurons than the PNS. ...
Many technical solutions are bio-inspired. Octopus-inspired robotic arms belong to continuum robots which are used in minimally invasive surgery or for technical system restoration in areas difficult-to-access. Continuum robot missions are bounded with their motions, whereby the motion of the robots is controlled by humans via wireless communication. In case of a lost connection, robot autonomy is required. Distributed control and distributed decision-making mechanisms based on artificial intelligence approaches can be a promising solution to achieve autonomy of technical systems and to increase their resilience. However these methods are not well investigated yet. Octopuses are the living example of natural distributed intelligence but their learning and decision-making mechanisms are also not fully investigated and understood yet. Our major interest is investigating mechanisms of Distributed Artificial Intelligence as a basis for improving resilience of complex systems. We decided to use a physical continuum robot prototype that is able to perform some basic movements for our research. The idea is to research how a technical system can be empowered to combine movements into sequences of motions by itself. For the experimental investigations a suitable physical prototype has to be selected, its motion control has to be implemented and automated. In this paper, we give an overview combining different fields of research, such as Distributed Artificial Intelligence and continuum robots based on 98 publications. We provide a detailed description of the basic motion control models of continuum robots based on the literature reviewed, discuss different aspects of autonomy and give an overview of physical prototypes of continuum robots.
... Coleoids display an independently evolved level of behavioral sophistication that parallels that of many mammals and birds. [1][2][3] Anatomically, cephalopods' large brain-to-body ratios rival those of vertebrates. 4 Additionally, they display complex cognition 5 in the areas of learning and memory. ...
... In this study, we have turned to Euprymna berryi, a bobtail squid from the Indo-Pacific that possesses many important traits for its use as a genetically tractable model system. 25,26 E. berryi (1) can be raised in the lab through its entire life cycle, (2) produces frequent clutches of embryos over a 3-4 month span that can be microinjected and then cultured to hatching in an incubator, (3) reaches sexual maturity in about 3 months, (4) has an assembled genome, 27 and (5) is only 3-5 cm in mantle length as an adult. 26,[28][29][30] What is lacking in this emerging model organism is the development of genetic tools and defined genetic strains to facilitate biological discovery. ...
Cephalopods are remarkable among invertebrates for their cognitive abilities, adaptive camouflage, novel structures, and propensity for recoding proteins through RNA editing. Due to the lack of genetically tractable cephalopod models, however, the mechanisms underlying these innovations are poorly understood. Genome editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas9 allow targeted mutations in diverse species to better link genes and function. One emerging cephalopod model, Euprymna berryi, produces large numbers of embryos that can be easily cultured throughout their life cycle and has a sequenced genome. As proof of principle, we used CRISPR-Cas9 in E. berryi to target the gene for tryptophan 2,3 dioxygenase (TDO), an enzyme required for the formation of ommochromes, the pigments present in the eyes and chromatophores of cephalopods. CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins targeting tdo were injected into early embryos and then cultured to adulthood. Unexpectedly, the injected specimens were pigmented, despite verification of indels at the targeted sites by sequencing in injected animals (G0s). A homozygote knockout line for TDO, bred through multiple generations, was also pigmented. Surprisingly, a gene encoding indoleamine 2,3, dioxygenase (IDO), an enzyme that catalyzes the same reaction as TDO in vertebrates, was also present in E. berryi. Double knockouts of both tdo and ido with CRISPR-Cas9 produced an albino phenotype. We demonstrate the utility of these albinos for in vivo imaging of Ca2+ signaling in the brain using two-photon microscopy. These data show the feasibility of making gene knockout cephalopod lines that can be used for live imaging of neural activity in these behaviorally sophisticated organisms.
... This proposition might seem untenable prima facie because aquatic animals, especially cetaceans and cephalopods, evince manifold characteristics canonically ascribed to high cognition and intelligence (Marino et al. 2007;Whitehead & Rendell 2015;Birch et al. 2020;Schnell et al. 2021a), such as mirror self-recognition (Reiss & Marino 2001, see also Kohda et al. 2019), selfcontrol (Schnell et al. 2021b), the ability to discriminate numbers (Nieder 2021), cultural transmission and creation of cultural niches (Whitehead & Rendell 2015;Fox et al. 2017), complex communication (Janik & Sayigh 2013), and tool use (Mann & Patterson 2013). ...
Current research indicates that (sub)surface ocean worlds essentially devoid of subaerial landmasses (e.g., continents) are common in the Milky Way, and that these worlds could host habitable conditions, thence raising the possibility that life and technological intelligence (TI) may arise in such aquatic settings. It is known, however, that TI on Earth (i.e., humans) arose on land. Motivated by these considerations, we present a Bayesian framework to assess the prospects for the emergence of TIs in land- and ocean-based habitats (LBHs and OBHs). If all factors are equally conducive for TIs to arise in LBHs and OBHs, we demonstrate that the evolution of TIs in LBHs (which includes humans) might have very low odds of roughly $1$-in-$10^3$ to $1$-in-$10^4$, thus outwardly contradicting the Copernican Principle. Hence, we elucidate three avenues whereby the Copernican Principle can be preserved: (i) the emergence rate of TIs is much lower in OBHs, (ii) the habitability interval for TIs is much shorter in OBHs, and (iii) only a small fraction of worlds with OBHs comprise appropriate conditions for effectuating TIs. We also briefly discuss methods for empirically falsifying our predictions, and comment on the feasibility of supporting TIs in aerial environments.
... Coleoid cephalopods including Decapodiformes and Octopodiformes (Strugnell and Nishiguchi 2007;Uribe and Zardoya 2017), are known to have capacity for learning such as discrimination and sociality (Fiorito and Scotto 1992;Schnell et al. 2021). These cephalopods have centralized nervous system containing about 200 million nerves (Newth 1972;Young 1963). ...
Coleoid cephalopods have a high intelligence, complex structures, and large brain. The cephalopod brain is divided into supraesophageal mass, subesophageal mass and optic lobe. Although much is known about the structural organization and connections of various lobes of octopus brain, there are few studies on the brain of cephalopod at the molecular level. In this study, we demonstrated the structure of an adult Octopus minor brain by histomorphological analyses. Through visualization of neuronal and proliferation markers, we found that adult neurogenesis occurred in the vL and posterior svL. We also obtained specific 1015 genes by transcriptome of O. minor brain and selected OLFM3, NPY, GnRH, and GDF8 genes. The expression of genes in the central brain showed the possibility of using NPY and GDF8 as molecular marker of compartmentation in the central brain. This study will provide useful information for establishing a molecular atlas of cephalopod brain.
... Homo sapiens, horses, birds, amphibians, fish, worms and bacteria. This line of development is in accordance with the latest scientific findings (see, for example, [44]). ...
... As it can be seen, the similarities of each amphibian (from the set of amphibians used for validation) are the greatest to Frog (see Table A8 in Appendix A). The background similarities to Horse, Crow and Goldfish are also visible (see Table A8 in Appendix A), which confirms the correctness of this part of the reconstructed line of organism development, i.e., amphibians are evolutionarily between birds and fish (this conclusion is also supported by other works [44]). Moreover, it can be observed that reptiles (Pelodiscus sinensis and Mauremys reevesii) are evolutionarily between birds (Crow) and amphibians (Frog) (closer to Crow), which is in accordance with other authors [44]. ...
... This method was used because it is considered one of the most accurate and widely used methods for reconstructing phy- As it can be seen, the similarities of each amphibian (from the set of amphibians used for validation) are the greatest to Frog (see Table A8 in Appendix A). The background similarities to Horse, Crow and Goldfish are also visible (see Table A8 in Appendix A), which confirms the correctness of this part of the reconstructed line of organism development, i.e., amphibians are evolutionarily between birds and fish (this conclusion is also supported by other works [44]). Moreover, it can be observed that reptiles (Pelodiscus sinensis and Mauremys reevesii) are evolutionarily between birds (Crow) and amphibians (Frog) (closer to Crow), which is in accordance with other authors [44]. ...
In this work, an artificial neural network is used to recognize timestamps of evolution. Timestamps are associated with outliers determined during the recognition of the genome attractors of organisms. The aim of this work is to present a new method of penetrating deep into evolution using the recognized timestamps. To achieve this aim, the neural networks of different number of layers were implemented in order to check the influence of the number of layers on the visibility of the timestamps. Moreover, the teaching process was repeated 10 times for each implemented neural network. The recognition of each organism evolution was also repeated 10 times for each taught neural network to increase the reliability of the results. It is presented, among other findings, that during the recognition of the timestamps of evolution not only the number of homologous comparisons and the lengths of compared sequences are important but also the distribution of similarities between sequences. It is also presented that the recognized timestamps allow for travel between genome attractors and reconstruct the line of organism development from the most advanced to the most primitive organisms. The results were validated by determining timestamps for exemplary sets of organisms and also in relation to semihomology approach and by phylogenetic tree generation.
