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Commercial harvesting of perennial herbs and geophytes for the medicinal plant trade has resulted in significant levels of resource depletion for several of the species concerned. One way to quantify the impacts is to estimate the number of bulbs harvested annually. Using records of bulb diameters sold in the Witwatersrand traditional medicinal pla...
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... perennial herb is defined here as a vascular plant whose life span extends over more than 2 years, that does not produce persistent above-ground woody tissue but may have under-or partially above-ground storage organs (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes or rootstock) (Van Wyk and Malan, 1988;Von Ahlefelt et al., 2003). Of the perennial herbs investigated, three species are bulbous, one is rhizomatous/cormous and two species have woody rootstocks with long, persistent, carrot-like roots (Table 1) (Fig. 1). ...
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... Many plant species traded at muthi markets were already showing signs of unsustainable harvesting in the late 1990s (Mander, 1998). For example, numerous species of bulbs displayed in the markets were becoming progressively smaller in diameter, strongly suggesting that the larger individuals had already been removed from the populations, and that only smaller ones remained in the wild (Williams et al., 2007a). Similar trends could be occurring with smaller succulent species, such as E. bupleurifolia. ...
Euphorbia bupleurifolia is a slow-growing dwarf succulent used for its medicinal properties by the Zulu and Xhosa people of South Africa. The latex reportedly cures several skin ailments, and it has been observed in traditional medicine (muthi) markets in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. To assess the impact of traditional medicine use and trade on E. bupleurifolia and gain insight into its demand and availability, surveys were conducted with traditional health practitioners (THPs) and traders in the KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, and Gauteng provinces using semi-structured questionnaires. These took place between November 2018 and January 2019. According to the participants (n=23), an estimated 1721 E. bupleurifolia plants were harvested in a year for medicinal use. Approximately 6% of participants harvested strictly for trade at muthi markets. Only 25% of participants claimed to have noted a decline in wild populations, while 44% believe the species is still abundant in the wild. However, only four E. bupleurifolia plants were encountered at a street market in King Williams Town (Eastern Cape province) while conducting surveys, suggesting that it has indeed become harder to find and hence scarcer in the wild. Common names of 10 other plant species which can be used as alternatives for E. bupleurifolia in healing were supplied by THPs, with uchithibhunga (Rhoicissus spp.) the most frequently cited. The high demand and noted declines in E. bupleurifolia in field surveys signifies the need for increased efforts directed at educating stakeholders on sustainable harvesting practices and promoting artificial propagation.
... Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch., C.A.Mey., & Avé-Lall. (Family: Hypoxidaceae), also known as African potato, iLabatheka, iNkomfe, moli, or starflower, has shown promise for use as a medicinal plant and natural product in southern Africa [9,11]. The plant is endemic to southern Africa and can be gathered in the wild. ...
South Africa is blessed with vast plant resources and unique vegetation types. Indigenous South African medicinal plants have been well-harnessed to generate income in rural communities. Many of these plants have been processed into natural products to heal a variety of diseases, making them valuable export commodities. South Africa has one of the most effective bio-conservation policies in Africa, which has protected the South African indigenous medicinal vegetation. However, there is a strong link between government policies for biodiversity conservation, the propagation of medicinal plants as a source of livelihood, and the development of propagation techniques by research scientists. Tertiary institutions nationwide have played a crucial role in the development of effective propagation protocols for valuable South African medicinal plants. The government-restricted harvest policies have also helped to nudge natural product companies and medicinal plant marketers to embrace the cultivated plants for their medicinal uses, and thus have helped support the South African economy and biodiversity conservation. Propagation methods used for the cultivation of the relevant medicinal plants vary according to plant family and vegetation type, among others. Plants from the Cape areas, such as the Karoo, are often resuscitated after bushfires, and propagation protocols mimicking these events have been established through seed propagation protocols with controlled temperatures and other conditions, to establish seedlings of such plants. Thus, this review highlights the role of the propagation of highly utilized and traded medicinal plants in the South African traditional medicinal system. Some valuable medicinal plants that sustain livelihoods and are highly sought-after as export raw materials are discussed. The effect of South African bio-conservation registration on the propagation of these plants and the roles of the communities and other stakeholders in the development of propagation protocols for highly utilized and endangered medicinal plants are also covered. The role of various propagation methods on the bioactive compounds’ composition of medicinal plants and issues of quality assurance are addressed. The available literature, media online news, newspapers, and other resources, such as published books and manuals, were scrutinized for information.
... However, extensive loss of grassland through land-use change (Jewitt et al., 2015) will reduce its future range while extensive harvesting of the corm for a wide range of traditional and commercial medicinal purposes (Khan and Drewes, 2004;Owira and Ojewole, 2009;Matyanga et al., 2020) depletes local populations, especially around urban centres (Dold and Cocks, 2002;Mofekeng et al., 2020). Plants with large corms are becoming less available in the wild because of overharvesting (Williams et al., 2007). ...
... Careful management of extant populations of forbs in mesic grassland is required because once eliminated from primary grassland, such long-lived perennials do not readily reestablish Buisson et al., 2019) even after many centuries of recovery (Nerlekar et al., 2020). Uncontrolled harvesting of whole forb plants or their underground parts for medicinal purposes (Williams et al., 2007) remains probably the key threat to mesic grassland populations (van Wyk and Prinsloo, 2018). However, overgrazing is an underappreciated insidious additional threat. ...
Mesic grasslands in South Africa (> 650 mm a À 1 MAP) are rich in herbaceous forbs, which outnumber grass species by more than 5 to 1. Many of these forbs are geophytes with underground storage units (USOs), such as thickened rootstocks, rhizomes, bulbs, or corms, that provide resources (non-structural carbohydrates, minerals, and water) enabling them to resprout after dry, frosty winters, and fire. However, despite their extensive biomass and reserves ostensibly protected underground, mesic grassland geophytes can be severely depleted or extirpated by chronic trampling and grazing of their aerial parts by livestock. This study examined a possible explanation for the demise of grassland geophytes in overgrazed grassland by investigating , in a pot trial, whether the growth of a geophyte and the size of its USOs are negatively affected by simulated green leaf loss. In a 2 £ 2 factorial (clipped vs. unclipped x spring regrowth in the dark vs. light), five replicate plants of Hypoxis hemerocallidea, a common mesic grassland geophyte that resprouts from a corm, were subject to six severe (clipped to 80 mm) defoliations during the growing season and regrown in spring under full or restricted light to measure stored reserve contribution to regrowth. Defoliated plants were resilient to defoliation during the growing season, matching the total biomass production of unclipped plants, though cutting reduced the number of leaves by :60% and flowers by almost 85%. Spring regrowth on stored reserves equalled that from reserves plus concurrent photosynthesis, indicating the value of USOs for regrowth. However, there was a marked carry-over effect of previous season defoliation, resulting in a one-third reduction in shoot growth and 40% fewer inflorescence in spring. Crucially, corm mass was more than halved by clipping, which resulted in lower spring biomass and inflorescence production. It was concluded that buried stored reserves are not protected from recurrent defoliation and mechanical damage to aerial plant parts and that continued diminishment of USOs under chronic disturbance by overgrazing or frequent mowing would weaken and likely eventually kill plants, reducing overall forb species richness. Lenient management by infrequent summer mowing or grazing at moderate stocking rates combined with periodic rota-tional full season resting and dormant-season burning is recommend to maintain the USOs and vigour of grassland geophytes in mesic grassland.
... However, extensive loss of grassland through land-use change (Jewitt et al., 2015) will reduce its future range while extensive harvesting of the corm for a wide range of traditional and commercial medicinal purposes (Khan and Drewes, 2004;Owira and Ojewole, 2009;Matyanga et al., 2020) depletes local populations, especially around urban centres (Dold and Cocks, 2002;Mofekeng et al., 2020). Plants with large corms are becoming less available in the wild because of overharvesting (Williams et al., 2007). ...
Mesic grasslands in South Africa (> 650 mm a-1 MAP) are rich in herbaceous forbs, which outnumber grass species by more than 5 to 1. Many of these forbs have underground storage units (USOs), such as thickened rootstocks, rhizomes, bulbs, or corms, that provide resources (non-structural carbohydrates, minerals, and water) enabling them to resprout after dry, frosty winters, and fire. However, despite their extensive biomass and reserves ostensibly protected underground, geophytic mesic grassland forbs can be severely depleted or extirpated by chronic trampling and grazing of their aerial parts by livestock. This study examined a possible explanation for forb demise in overgrazed grassland by investigating, in a pot trial, whether the growth of forbs and the size of their USOs are negatively affected by simulated green leaf loss. In a 2x2 factorial (clipped vs. unclipped x spring regrowth in the dark vs. light), five replicate plants of Hypoxis hemerocallidea, a common mesic grassland forb that resprouts from a corm, were subject to six severe (clipped to 80 mm) defoliations during the growing season and regrown in spring under full or restricted light to measure stored reserve contribution to regrowth. Defoliated plants were resilient to defoliation during the growing season, matching the total biomass production of unclipped plants, though cutting reduced the number of leaves by ~60% and flowers by almost 85%. Spring regrowth on stored reserves equalled that from reserves plus concurrent photosynthesis, indicating the value of USOs for regrowth. However, there was a marked carry-over effect of previous season defoliation, resulting in a one-third reduction in shoot growth and 40% fewer inflorescence in spring. Crucially, corm mass was more than halved by clipping. Above-ground spring growth was linearly related to corm mass. It was concluded that buried stored reserves are not protected by recurrent disturbance to aerial plant parts and that continued diminishment of USOs under chronic disturbance by overgrazing or frequent mowing would weaken and likely eventually kill plants, reducing forb species richness. Lenient management by infrequent summer mowing or grazing at moderate stocking rates combined with periodic rotational full season resting and dormant-season burning is recommended to maintain the USOs and vigour of forbs in mesic grassland
... The use of rare and endangered species as traditional medicine can have potentially significant impacts on populations of local species, which are already under pressure (Still, 2003;Williams et al., 2007). Pangolin scale is an effective ingredient in TCM (Xie et al., 2001;Wang et al., 2015;Zhou et al., 2019). ...
Pangolins are some of the most trafficked mammals in the world. China is a major destination country for illegal wildlife trade and Guangdong Province is one of the areas of high domestic wildlife consumption. A willingness to consume lies at the root of the illegal wildlife trade. To understand the ideological roots of pangolin consumption, and to propose solutions, we conducted a consumption survey in 21 prefecture-level cities in Guangdong and have collected 1,957 valid questionnaires. In these questionnaires, 108 respondents (5.52%) who had consumed pangolin-related products, scales had been consumed by 61 respondents (3.12%), 58 respondents (2.96%) had consumed meat. We found that scale consumption was primarily motivated by disease treatment (80.43%). The main reason for meat consumption was accidental (44.83%), but among those who intentionally ate pangolin were motivated by curiosity (22.41%) or “showing off” (8.62%). Simultaneously, the respondents' future consumption willingness for medicinal purposes was more difficult to change than its use for other purposes. What's more, the public's insufficient understanding of the status of pangolins in China and weak legal awareness were potential reasons for pangolin consumption. In addition to classifying pangolins as Category I state-protected animals in China and strengthening penalties and enforcement, we recommend creating public awareness of the risk of zoonotic diseases, advocating for the use of alternative medicines in disease treatment and removing scales from ingredients in patented medicines, which will all act to reduce the demand for pangolins. We expect these actions to change public consumption behaviors and their collective understanding of pangolins, which improve pangolin protection efforts around the globe.
... In the current rapidly changing environment, the underground woody xylopodia are storage organs that are used for recovery or regeneration after disturbance events and seasonal dormancy (Dreschler et al., 1999) and may facilitate the resistance of grasslands to short-term climatic changes such as droughts (Grime et al., 2007;Donoghue and Edwards, 2014). However, many geoxyles contain chemicals that are valued by medicinal plant harvesters (Williams et al., 2007) for their medicinal properties (e.g. Dioscorea sylvatica (Kunth) Ecklon; Boophane disticha (L.f.) Herbert.; and Callilepis laureola DC). ...
... Dioscorea sylvatica (Kunth) Ecklon; Boophane disticha (L.f.) Herbert.; and Callilepis laureola DC). Harvesters invariably target larger individuals that have greater fecundity, thus posing a threat to the persistence of dwindling populations of many species (Williams et al., 2007). ...
Annual growth rings are absent in many long-lived grassland geoxyles. Thus, estimates of age for individuals are largely based on non-benchmarked assessments by experienced botanists. We wished to obtain a more precise estimate of age from the xylopodia of four geoxylic taxa (i.e. Berkheya insignis, Callilepis laureola, Protea simplex and Tephrosia kraussiana) growing in a Pondoland grassland, using both the gas proportional counting and Accelerated Mass Spectroscopy radiocarbon dating techniques. Plants sampled in 2008 fell within modern concentrations of carbon 14; therefore, radiocarbon dating generally yielded two ages for each plant, an older age (range: 45À51 years, mean=49, CV=3.6%) corresponding with the nuclear testing period, and a younger age (range: 10À29 years, mean=18, CV=35%), corresponding to the period after the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Hence the older ages are much less variable than the younger ages. All plants had the older age estimate, and all but two had the younger age estimate. In addition, two plants each, had two similar older age estimates. P. simplex plants were 16, 24, 27 and 29, or 45, 46À49, 47 and 49 years, T. kraussiana 13, 15 and 16, or 50 and two of 51 years, C. laureola 12, 15 and 21, or 49À50 and two of 50 years and B. insignis were 10, or 49, 50 and 51 years old. Growth rings were not visible with the naked eye. However , using stereomicroscopy, ring-like patterns were visible to some extent at 7X magnification for B. insig-nis, P. simplex and T. kraussiana, but not C. laureola. Counts of these structures were much lower than the younger 14 C dates, and hence are unlikely to be annual rings. Despite the ambiguity of multiple ages, these estimates are a useful starting point or benchmark for future empirical investigations of age for forbs with no clear annual rings. Most studies have used radiocarbon dating to estimate the age of woody tree stem tissue, whereas this study is one of few to measure the age of below-ground modern tissues of South African forbs. Suggestions for further refinement during collection and processing of geophytic sample material are made based on lessons learned from this investigation.
... Research by Van Wyk [17] showed that the leaves and roots of S. columbaria L. have commercial potential as colic and herbal medicine for heartburn in South Africa. Moreover, the roots and whole plants of S. columbaria are sold as herbal medicines in informal herbal medicine markets in 66.7% of the provinces in South Africa, that is, in the Eastern Cape [18], Gauteng [19][20][21][22], KwaZulu-Natal [23], Limpopo [24], Mpumalanga [22], and Northern Cape [25] Provinces. Williams [19] categorized S. columbaria as a fast-selling and popular herbal medicine, with its roots purchased at least once a day in the Witwatersrand herbal medicine informal market in the Gauteng Province in South Africa. ...
Scabiosa columbaria is a perennial herb widely used as herbal medicine throughout its distributional range in tropical Africa, Asia, and Europe. This study is aimed at providing a critical review of the biological activities, phytochemistry, and medicinal uses of S. columbaria. Documented information on biological activities, medicinal uses, and phytochemistry of S. columbaria was collected from several online sources which included BMC, Scopus, SciFinder, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, PubMed, and Web of Science. Additional information on the biological activities, phytochemistry, and medicinal uses of S. columbaria was gathered from pre-electronic sources such as book chapters, books, journal articles, theses, and scientific publications sourced from the university library. This study showed that the aerial parts, leaves, roots, stems, and the whole plant parts of S. columbaria are used as colic, love charm and for magical purposes, and as herbal medicine for eye problems, heartburn, respiratory problems, wounds, female infertility, venereal diseases, skin infections, and menstrual problems. Phytochemical compounds identified from the aerial parts and roots of S. columbaria are glycoside scabiosin, loganin, sweroside, palmitic acid, phthalic acid, diisooctyl phthalate, bis-(ethylhexyl) phthalate, and dibutyl phthalate. Pharmacological research revealed that S. columbaria extracts and compounds have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoan activities. Future research should focus on evaluating the phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties of S. columbaria crude extracts as well as compounds isolated from the species.
... All around the globe, traditional markets are considered as places for trade and marketing of plant and plant products, where cultures are expressed by means of regional trade, likewise markets acts as meeting spots where various ecologically and culturally diverse communities display and sell a diverse array of minerals, animals, plants and their derivatives. (Hooper et al., 1937;Linares & Bye, 1987;Nicholson & Arzeni, 1993;Martin, 1995;Cunningham, 2001;Parente & da Rosa, 2001;Hanlidou et al., 2004;Williams et al., 2007a;Williams et al., 2007b;Williams et al., 2009;Giraldo et al., 2009;Silalahi et al., 2015;Tinitana et al., 2 016;Tibuhwa, 2018). Indigenous people living on their traditional territory largely rely on plants and plant products sold in the public markets for general healthcare. ...
... Interest in the cultivation of medicinal plants have gained considerable attention as a result of the need to meet the increasing demand from both local and international markets (Affolter and Pengelly 2007;Canter et al. 2005;Lubbe and Verpoorte 2011;Moyo et al. 2015). Particularly, the intense harvesting of perennial herbs and geophytes for commercial purposes has resulted in significant depletion in the wild population of many species in sub-Saharan Africa (Dold and Cocks 2002;Moyo et al. 2015;Williams et al. 2007). As an alternative to harvesting medicinal plants from the wild population, their cultivation has the potential to overcome the challenges which entail quality control and ensure sustainability as well as availability (Canter et al. 2005;Lubbe and Verpoorte 2011;Wiersum et al. 2006). ...
The effect of vermicompost leachate (VCL, low-cost biostimulant) on the growth, elemental (macro and micro-nutrients) and phytochemical content as well as the antioxidant potential of Drimiopsis maculata was evaluated. Three dilutions (1:5; 1:10 and 1:20) of VCL were tested and the cultivation lasted for 3 months. In addition to the recorded growth parameters, dried and ground plant materials (leaves and bulbs) were evaluated for nutrients, phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity. Vermicompost leachate application enhanced the growth of D. maculata, particularly, the leaves (VCL 1:10) and bulbs (VCL 1:20) which were significantly bigger than the controls. Apart from the concentration of phosphorus which was significantly lower in the leaves of VCL (1:20)-treated plants, the quantity of all four macro-nutrients analysed were similar with and without VCL. Similar observations were also demonstrated in the majority of quantified micro-nutrients in D. maculata. Relative to the control, VCL-treated plants had higher concentrations of the 10 phenolic acids quantified in the leaves. However, the majority of the quantified phenolic acids were not significantly enhanced in bulbs. Antioxidant activity of D. maculata extracts was generally higher in leaves than in the bulbs. The leaf extract from VCL (1:10 and 1:20)-treated plants exhibited lower oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) when compared to the control. However, bulbs from VCL (1:5) treatment had significantly higher ORAC than the control. From a conservational perspective, the current findings provided insight on viable approaches useful for mitigating challenges associated with over-harvesting of highly utilized but slow-growing plant species.
... Traditional markets around the world have been recognized as places for the trade of plants and their derivative products and have become exchange posts where cultures are expressed through regional trade [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Additionally, markets are a meeting place to display a diverse array of minerals, animals, and plants sold locally, which come from neighboring communities that are culturally and ecologically diverse [4,12]. ...
... This is particularly true for the southern region of the country and specifically for the Loja province, because although it is a region rich in plant diversity, it is a region that is deficient in traditional market studies. In this area, only a few ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted, particularly on how the "mestizo" population and indigenous communities use medicinal plant resources from wild collection and/or homegardens [9,52,[86][87][88][89]. ...
