Table 2 - uploaded by Robert Kleck
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Perceived Impact of Experimental Manipulations-on the Behavior of Others in Study 2 Experimental condition
Source publication
24 female undergraduates were led to believe that they were perceived as physically deviant in the eyes of an interactant when in fact they were not. Following a brief discussion, they commented on those aspects of the interactant's behavior that appeared to be linked to the deviance. Ss who thought that they possessed negatively valued physical ch...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... will subsequently be referred to as the allergy demand condition. Table 2 shows the means for the subjects' ratings of what they thought the experimenter expected regarding the impact of the inde- pendent variable (physical condition) and what they personally expected the study to find. Consistent with our findings in Study 1, persons reading the epilepsy instructions re- ported that they expected a greater impact on another's behavior than did subjects reading either version of the allergy instructions, t(32) = 3.8, p < .001, ...
Context 2
... allergy demand instructions had been written to provide a condition for which sub- jects would have little difficulty inferring that the experimenter expected his manipulation to have an impact. The means in Table 2 reveal that this was indeed the outcome and that subjects perceived that the experimenter in the allergy demand condition expected as ro- bust an effect as did the experimenter in the epilepsy condition. What is important, how- ever, is that subjects in the allergy demand cell projected a hypothesis upon the experi- menter (he was perceived as expecting high impact), which they themselves did not share (they expected relatively little impact), /(15) = 5.57, p < .0001. ...
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Citations
... Research indicates that body self-esteem and an individual's perception surrounding this are integral in the development of a variety of social relationships (Kleck & Strenta, 1980). Self-esteem is a very important element for living a happy life. ...
The study examined the relationship between self-esteem and interpersonal relationships among pre-service teachers in higher education. The study was guided by two research questions, two hypotheses, self-identity theory (Stryker 1980), social exchange theory (Homans, 1958) and social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The sample size was 166, obtained from total number of level 300 students from the Department of Health Physical Education and Recreation, and Department of Mathematics and ICT under the Faculty of Science and Technology Education. The department of Health Physical Education and Recreation level 300 had total number of students to be 38 and department of Mathematics and ICT level 300 had total student of 124, given a total sample size to be 166. The results of the study are based on 152 out of 166, which constitutes a response rate of 91.6%. Questionnaire was used to gather data from the respondents. The data collected from the respondents were analysed using frequencies and percentages, mean and standard deviations, independent samples t-test, and simple linear regression using 1000 bootstrap samples with Bias Corrected accelerated confidence intervals. The study revealed the following findings: 1) the majority of the respondents experience low self-esteem, 2) The respondents, on average, demonstrate a moderate level of interpersonal relationship engagement, 3) there was no statistically significant relationship between self-esteem and interpersonal relationship and 4) a statistically significant difference in the mean scores of self-esteem between male and female students with male students having lower self-esteem than females. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of tailored interventions, like orientation programs and seminars, to enhance self-esteem, especially among male pre-service teachers. It also underscores the complex link between self-esteem and interpersonal relationships.
... Major and colleagues (2003) found that women were attentive to situational cues such that when blatant cues to gender discrimination were present, women were more likely to perceive that a man had discriminated against them as compared to when no cues to discrimination were present. However, felt stigma can also occur independent of enacted stigma (e.g., Barrett & Swim, 1998;Kleck & Strenta, 1980). When cues to gender-based discrimination were ambiguous, women who were highly identified with their gender group were more likely to perceive that they had been personally targeted by Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. ...
Stigma is the devaluation of an individual or group that is based on social identity and leads to status loss and other negative outcomes. Although there are variations in the manifestation of stigma, the existence of stigma is pervasive, transcending time and culture. Moreover, stigma has the potential to cause profound harm across virtually every facet of a stigmatized person’s life. At the same time, there is tremendous variation across individuals and groups in the experience of stigma. Stigmas vary in concealability, the circumstances under which they originate, and the extent to which they change over time, interfere with social interactions, are considered disgusting, and are perceived as posing a danger to others. Functional approaches to stigma posit that stigma can serve to encourage the exploitation of outgroups for ingroup gain, enforce norms within a group, or encourage disease avoidance behaviors. Stigma is enacted at a structural level when societal norms, laws, and policies harm the ability of stigmatized groups to access resources and safety. Interpersonal stigma occurs when stereotypes, prejudice, and other negative biases lead individuals to intentionally or unintentionally discriminate against members of stigmatized groups. The hallmark characteristic of a stigma approach to the study of inequality and disadvantage is a focus on the psychological experience of people who belong to stigmatized groups. People who belong to stigmatized groups are generally aware of their disadvantaged status and the devaluation of their group. This awareness sets the stage for a variety of psychological processes to unfold including felt stigma, internalized stigma, anticipated stigma, and social identity threat. People who experience stigma cope with the stress posed by stigma in a variety of ways. Three well-established mechanisms for coping with stigma include identifying with the group, distancing from the group, and engaging in collective action to improve the status of the group. Stigma can influence a variety of life outcomes including, but not limited to, health and well-being, interpersonal relationships, education, and work outcomes. Interventions can both reduce the prevalence of stigma and mitigate the harmful consequences of stigma.
... Patients with hypodontia may sufer from an unfavorable esthetic appearance, inarticulate pronunciation and reduced chewing ability that ultimately afect their communication behavior, self-esteem, and professional performance [6,7]. ...
Background:
Disturbances during the early tooth development stages may result in the congenital absence of teeth. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between hypodontia and Angle's malocclusions.
Materials and methods:
The sample comprised 601 orthodontic patients' pretreatment records (242 men and 259 women), selected from the achieved orthodontic records. Developmental anomalies of teeth affecting the number were examined on dental panoramic radiographs. Based on Angle's classification, pretreatment dental casts were assessed and classified into different classes of malocclusion. The relationship between hypodontia and different classes of malocclusion was evaluated using the chi-square test.
Results:
The prevalence of tooth agenesis was 7.48%, that is, 45 out of 601 samples. There were a total of 72 (0.42%) missing teeth, excluding the third molars. The most frequent missing tooth was the maxillary lateral incisor (35, 48.61%), followed by the mandibular lateral incisor (14, 19.44%), the mandibular central incisor (6, 8.33%), the mandibular second premolar (5, 6.294%), and the maxillary second premolar (4, 5.55%). Hypodontia was more common in the upper jaw. Although hypodontia was mostly seen in Class I malocclusion patients (7.87%), followed by Class II malocclusion patients (6.99%) and least in Class III malocclusion patients. However, there was no significant difference in hypodontia among different classes of malocclusions (p = 0.352).
Conclusion:
The most frequently missing tooth was the maxillary lateral incisor, followed by lateral and central mandibular incisors and mandibular second premolars, while excluding the third molars. The present study did not find any association between various types of malocclusions and hypodontia.
... For instance, in a qualitative study conducted with adolescents with cutaneous leishmaniasis, the reactions of others were related to subsequent lower self-concept (Bennis et al., 2017). At the same time, anticipated stigma and internalized stigma can occur even in the absence of enacted stigma, and research has indeed shown discrepancies between the perception that stigma is present and actual discrimination, also for FD (Kleck & Strenta, 1980). This is termed stigma consciousness (Pinel, 1999). ...
Facial difference (FD) is not only an individual experience; it is inherently social, reflecting interactions between social norms and individual attitudes. Often FD is stigmatized. In this paper, we employ a widely used stigma framework, namely the social stigma framework put forth by Pryor and Reeder (2011), to unpack the stigma of FD. This framework posits that there are four forms of stigma: public stigma, self-stigma, stigma by association, and structural stigma. We first discuss the social and psychological literature on FD as it pertains to these various forms of stigma. We then describe coping approaches for FD stigma. Lastly, we delineate evidence-based methods for addressing the various forms of FD stigma, such that future efforts can more effectively tackle the stigma of facial difference.
... This finding was found to be true with stigmatized groups. For example, Kleck and Strenta (1980) find those who believe they have scars in their faces overperceive discrimination and report more negativity. This study indicates that people's presumptions about specific things lead to overperceive them. ...
... Indeed, while focusing solely on the people with FD perspective, two assumptions are made: (a) stigmatizing reactions are obvious and (b) experience of people with FD is not biased (e.g., by beliefs, former experiences). As researchers have shown that stigma reactions can be subtle (see Bos et al., 2013), and that the stigma felt might rather reflect anticipation than actual discrimination (Kleck & Strenta, 1980), evidences of perceivers' reactions are needed in order to complement people with FD's testimonies. They might even be crucial when tailoring behavior change strategies. ...
This research aims to better understand the affective dimension in the public stigma of people with facial difference (FD) by identifying the perceivers’ various affective reactions to FD and by grouping them in a relevant typology. In a first qualitative step (N = 47), a vignette study based on a self-presentation paradigm was used to get participants to generate a comprehensive list of the affective states they may feel when they first meet people with FD. In a second quantitative step (N = 385), a questionnaire composed of the formerly generated affective states was proposed to other participants so as to statistically select the most relevant dimensions. A comprehensive list of 65 partially overlapping affective states—including 72 that have emerged in the first study and two others coming from previous research—were clustered in six factors via an exploratory factor analysis in the second study. The factors were named as follows: “sympathy-related,” “anxiety- and embarrassment-related,” “surprise-related,” “hostility-related,” “neutrality-related,” and “disgust-related.” This 6-factor structure was confirmed in a typology reduced to 18 affective states via a confirmatory factor analysis. This research offers a concise and complete panel of the ambivalent affective reactions to FD.
... This finding was found to be true with stigmatized groups. For example, Kleck and Strenta (1980) find those who believe they have scars in their faces overperceive discrimination and report more negativity. This study indicates that people's presumptions about specific things lead to overperceive them. ...
... For instance, according to Taylor, Taylor, and Nguyen (2016), subjective social isolation led to increased depressive symptoms among the elderly. Kleck and Strenta (1980) also emphasize that people with disfigurement often encounter stigmatization. Social exclusion has also been found to be common to the experience of acid attack victimization. ...
Acid attack refers to the act of hurling acid or any other corrosive substance on a person with the intention of injuring, harming, maiming, disfiguring or killing. Despite the fact that the number of acid attack cases in India have been rising, a separate section for acid attacks was not included in the Indian Penal Code until the year 2013. Even after the inclusion of this crime in the Indian Penal Code, the discourse about the crime and the condition of victims in the aftermath of the crime remains largely incomplete due to the selective focus on the medical treatment of the victims and punishment for the offenders. Therefore, the present paper attempts to explore social isolation as a consequence of the crime and the role of social support in the psychological rehabilitation of acid attack victims. The present research involved narrative interviews of a homogenous purposive sample of 30 female acid attack victims which were analysed using thematic content analysis. The findings suggest that victims of acid attack experience non‐social support in the form of social isolation social exclusion as a consequence of acid attack in addition to the lack of informational and instrumental social support. Results also suggest that social support plays a crucial role in the coping process of the acid attack victims. The insights of the present research will help in improving the understanding of the psychosocial correlates of acid attack victims and the recovery process of the acid attack victims.
... Chapter 3 1 The group or individual with low status and low power might fall into the category of what we label marginalization (to be discussed shortly), especially if the group is not relevant or essential to the functioning of the dominant group. 2 We recognize that much of the research on stigma has included visibility or concealability as a dimension of how the stigmatized (and stigmatizer) experience and copes with stigma (e.g., Deaux et al., 1995;Frable, 1993;Kleck & Strenta, 1980;Jones et al., 1984). Consistent with these theoretical perspectives, we concur that visibility of the stigmatized individual or group has a dramatic impact on the way in which social disadvantage is experienced, as well as on coping mechanisms. ...
In a time of increasing divisiveness in politics and society, there is a desperate need for leaders to bring people together and leverage the power of diversity and inclusion. Inclusive Leadership: Transforming Diverse Lives, Workplaces, and Societies provides leaders with guidance and hands-on strategies for fostering inclusion and explains how and why it matters.
Inclusive Leadership explores cutting-edge theory, research, practice, and experience on the pivotal role of leadership in promoting inclusion in diverse teams, organizations, and societies. Chapters are authored by leading scholars and practitioners in the fields of leadership, diversity, and inclusion. The book is solidly grounded in research on inclusive leadership development, diversity management, team effectiveness, organizational development, and intergroup relations. Alongside the exhaustive scholarship are practical suggestions for making teams, groups, organizations, and the larger society more inclusive and, ultimately, more productive.
Leaders and managers at all levels, HR professionals, and members of diverse teams will find Inclusive Leadership invaluable in becoming more effective at cultivating inclusive climates and realizing its many benefits—including innovation, enhanced team and organizational performance, and social justice.
... Chapter 3 1 The group or individual with low status and low power might fall into the category of what we label marginalization (to be discussed shortly), especially if the group is not relevant or essential to the functioning of the dominant group. 2 We recognize that much of the research on stigma has included visibility or concealability as a dimension of how the stigmatized (and stigmatizer) experience and copes with stigma (e.g., Deaux et al., 1995;Frable, 1993;Kleck & Strenta, 1980;Jones et al., 1984). Consistent with these theoretical perspectives, we concur that visibility of the stigmatized individual or group has a dramatic impact on the way in which social disadvantage is experienced, as well as on coping mechanisms. ...
Inclusive leadership creates and fosters conditions that allow everyone in diverse groups, workplaces, and communities across and with their differences and without having to subsume or hide valued identities—to be at and to do their best, to see the value in doing so, and to belong and participate in ways that are safe, engaging, appreciated, and fair. Inclusive leaders facilitate participation, voice, and belonging—without requiring assimilation and while fostering equity and fairness across multiple identities. Inclusive leadership is the fulcrum of inclusion because it plays a pivotal role in magnifying inclusion within and transmuting inclusion across levels of analysis: it brings societal and organizational goals, values, and policies related to inclusion to life in everyday behavior and interactions, and detects and highlights relevant micro-level experiences and behavior, giving them meaning and addressing them at the organizational and societal levels. This chapter (1) defines inclusive leadership through the lens of diversity, inclusion, and equity in a multilevel systems perspective; (2) discusses its pivotal role as a fulcrum or force multiplier, fostering and magnifying inclusion at micro and macro levels and connecting micro and macro aspects of inclusion, and (3) outlines key elements of inclusive leadership, including focal inclusive leadership behaviors.
