Fig 4 - uploaded by Ashish Kumar Gupta
Content may be subject to copyright.
Pathways for the formation of geraniol and citral in lemongrass. GPP, geranyl diphosphate. GES: geraniol synthase, GPPase: geranyldiphosphatase, GDH: geraniol dehydrogenase, GAE: geranyl acetate esterase, GAT: geranyl acetate transferase
Source publication
Economic and pharmacological significance of the essential oils of members of the genus Cymbopogon is rapidly increasing. Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), wild lemongrass (C. citratus), palmarosa (C. martinii) and citronella (C. winterianus) are the elite essential oil producing aromatic grasses of the genus Cymbopogon. Lemongrass essential oil i...
Context in source publication
Similar publications
Plants from Apiaceae family are commonly used for food, flavoring, fragrance and medical purposes; they are also known to be used as a household remedies since antiquity. Recently, many experimental and biological investigations have been carried out in order to validate the ethno-medicinal claims of plants belonging to this family. Moreover, redis...
Citations
... Among the different Cymbopogon species, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon citratus are the most esteemed species in terms of essential oil production and their phytochemical and pharmacological properties (Mwithiga et al., 2022). The essential oils of these two species hold immense commercial value in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, flavors, soaps, fragrances, perfumery, detergents and tobacco products (Ganjewala & Gupta, 2013). Lemongrass leaves are used in preparing herbal tea, whereas stems are used in the making of curries, fish, soup, beef products and poultry products. ...
The qualitative and quantitative phytochemical composition of Cymbopogon flexuosus plant leaves were investigated using standard methods. Eight Phytochemical families were detected. Amongst those detected are phenolic acid, saponins, glycosides, cyanogenic glycosides, alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids and sterols. Seven phenolic acids were quantitatively detected with ferulic acid (10.28±0.55 mg/100 g), chlorogenic acid (8.37±0.01 mg/100 g) and caffeic acid (2.93±0.04 mg/100 g) being the highest. Among the nine saponins detected sarsasapogenin (7.12±0.10 mg/100 g) and tigogenin (5.34±0.02 mg/100 g) were observed to be high. Nine glycosides and six cyanogenic glycosides were found in the plant leave and salicin (1.36±0.01 mg/100 g) and galliridoside (7.12±0.10 mg/100 g) were detected to be the highest respectively. Seventeen alkaloids and five anthocyanins were found in the plant leaf. For the alkaloids, akuammidine (4.21±0.01 mg/100 g) was seen to be the highest while cyaniding-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside (32.96±55.46 mg/100 g) was observed to be the highest for anthocyanins. Six and seven flavonoids and sterols were detected in the plant leaf respectively. Among them, glycitein with value of 19.01±0.06 mg/100 g and sitosterol at 16.25±0.01 mg/100 g were found to also be the highest respectively. The rich contents of many bioactive molecules detected in Cymbopogon flexuosus leaf suggest the strong nutraceutical potential of this plant leaves, further suggesting their likely use as functional food and as therapeutics in the management and prevention of diseases.
... Cymbopogon olivieri is one of the important plant species belonging to the family Poaceae with stiff, upright stem, and short rhizomes (Ganjewala and Gupta 2013). The natural habitat of this plant is tropical regions. ...
Cymbopogon olivieri is one of the important species belonging to the family Poaceae. The natural habitat of this plant is tropical regions. In particular, it is distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, and America. Two species, C. olivieri and C. parkeri have been reported in Iran. The genus has been proven to possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antibacterial properties. Taxonomic identification and species classifying of Lemongrass is very difficult due to the ease of cross-breeding and the existence of a large number of species and races. This study aimed to study variations and clustering of 10 Iranian endemic populations of C. olivieri (Boiss.) Bor based on chromosomal and holoploid genome size features. The results of karyotype analysis clearly showed the mixed-ploidy. Among which, six populations were diploids (2n=2x=20), three tetraploids (2n=4x=40), and a hexaploid (2n=6x=60). The mean chromosome length (CL) was determined as 1.87 µm for diploids, 1.73 µm for tetraploids, and 1.25 µm for a hexaploid. The average holoploid genome sizes of the diploids, tetraploids, and a hexaploid were 4.42, 4.64, and 4.91 pg, respectively. These results may provide relevant information for Cymbopogon breeding studies.
... C. flexuosus (lemongrass), C. martini (ginger grass or palmarosa), and C. winterianus (citronella) are aromatic grasses of the genus Cymbopogon. The EO from different Cymbopogon species has medicinal and pharmacological significance in addition to its fragrant and cosmetic properties (Ganjewala and Gupta, 2016). Due to its characteristic gastronomic value and flavoring properties, Elettaria cardamomum EO has nutritional and pharmacological applications (Anwar et al.., 2016). ...
The addition of carminative essential oils could be an approach for food preservation and would minimize or substitute chemical preservatives. In the present study, essential oils (n=11) namely, Anethum sowa, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Citrus bergamia, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Cymbopogon martini, Cymbopogon winterianus, Elettaria cardamomum, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia sclarea and Trachyspermum ammi, were screened against Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria monocytogenes. The largest diameters of zone of inhibition, 19.9 ± 0.33 mm and 21.7 ± 0.58 mm, were exhibited by T. ammi essential oil against Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria monocytogenes, respectively. Growth inhibition studies for T. ammi essential oil, sodium nitrite and their combinations were also carried out on cucumber, apple, gram flour soup and mutton broth models. The combination of T. ammi essential oil and sodium nitrite depicted synergism and was also effective in reducing the bacterial counts in artificially inoculated food systems.
... Several monoterpenes such as geraniol (G), geranyl acetate (GA), citral (CT), limonene (LN), and linalool (LL) are highly popular and widely used in fragrances, cosmetics, hygiene, household products, food, and pharmaceuticals. [1][2][3][4] They exhibited a wide range of biological activities such as antibacterial, analgesic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiobesity, and modulators of the gut microbiota. 1,5,6 Citral and linalool are also involved in the synthesis of vitamins A, E, and ionones. ...
... [1][2][3][4] They exhibited a wide range of biological activities such as antibacterial, analgesic, antiinflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiobesity, and modulators of the gut microbiota. 1,5,6 Citral and linalool are also involved in the synthesis of vitamins A, E, and ionones. [7][8][9] At present, many reports are being published on geraniol and citral, demonstrating their potential anticancer effects and their scope in alternative cancer therapy. ...
Monoterpenes, such as Geraniol (G), Geranyl acetate (GA), Citral (CT), Limonene (LN), and Linalool (LL), are the most widely used phytochemicals in the aroma, food, and pharmaceutical industries. Here, we screened several bacteria and fungi to assess their potential to biotransform the selected monoterpenes (G, GA, CT, LN, and LL) through the substrate toxicity test. Three bacteria Pseudomonas fluorescens MTCC2421, Streptococcus mutans MTCC497, and Escherichia coli were found to be resistant to G, GA, and LN while two P. aeruginosa, and S. epidermidis MTTC 435 to GA and LN. In general, all fungal strains did not show resistance to any of the monoterpenes used, except Candida albicans and Fusarium oxysporum, which were slightly resistant to lower concentrations (0.05-0.1%) of GA. Interestingly, none of the bacteria and fungi showed any resistance to CT. The maximum concentrations of monoterpenes to which bacteria exhibited resistance ranged from 0.05-0.2%. The growth and biomass profiles of bacteria revealed that P. fluorescens and S. mutans grew well in the presence of monoterpenes GA and LN. Based on this, Pseudomonas fluorescens was capable of biotransforming GA and LN, while S. mutans only LN. The biotransformation of GA by P. fluorescens produced G and LL on the day 5th and 7th of the incubation. Hence, the study revealed the three potential bacteria, which may be useful in producing new aromatic derivatives from selected monoterpenes through biotransformation.
... Obviously, monoterpene components namely citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol, were found to be like this research results, which were observed under the same conditions. Supported by Ganjewala and Gupta [35], stated that the MEP (Methyl erythritol) pathway, IPP in plastids will be synthesized into components of citronella, namely citronellall, citronellol, and geraniol. Indeed, besides being formed into oil components, IPP is formed into other products such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, and growth regulators. ...
Cymbopogon nardus is an aromatic plant which produces essential oil. Citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol as well-known as monoterpenes. The component of monoterpenes in this research were triggered by organic matter, such as organic manure and rhizobacteria. Organic fertilizers are used for environmentally friendly by maintaining soil and plant health and it’s necessary to achieve agricultural sustainability. Rhizobacteria are beneficial microorganisms for plants and soil for environmental management of both soil, plants, and soil micro biodiversity. Rhizobacteria contributes to soil fertilization through bio-fixation and bio-solubilization of essential nutrients along with the production of growth regulators. Microorganisms regulate the mechanism of absorption and mobility of nutrients in soil. The objective of this research is to investigate the effects of rhizobacteria and organic manure on the component of monoterpenes as well as the content of citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol. The results research show that C. nardus treated with rhizobacteria accumulating of nitrogen 1% and geraniol 5% in leaves which is more than those without rhizobacteria. Interestingly, content of citronellal and citronellol in leaves increased reach at 10% treated by without rhizobacteria and it higher than those supplied with rhizobacteria. In that case, citronellal, citronellol, geraniol formed from the carbon which was seems supplied by organic manure. Furthermore, rhizobacteria treatment shows a stable content of oil components in various rates of organic manure, but able to increase the oil yield at about 30% of C. nardus . Meanwhile, without supply of rhizobacteria, the result of oil yield relatively similar in various rates of organic manure. Regarding to the results, found that application of rhizobacteria able to increase the fresh weight, dry weight, and oil content. As consequently, contribution of rhizobacteria and organic manure to the mechanism of mineralization and improve soil health indirectly. Hence, plant able to uptake and accumulation nutrients in particular nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
... Specifically, C. flexuosus is considered one of the primary species extensively cultivated in different regions of the globe owing to its essential oil's high citral concentration, which ranges between 65 and 85 % [2], but may vary because of myriad of factors like plant species, altitude and climatic conditions. Endemic to India, C. flexuosus is largely grown in several countries, including China, Indonesia, Mexico, Madagascar, Brazil, Haiti and Dominica [3]. Further, it has a broad distribution in subtropical and tropical zones across Africa, America and Asia. ...
... The C. flexuosus exhibits variation in essential oil composition and morphological traits at inter-and intra-specific levels [9]. Previous work has demonstrated that although C. flexuosus can persist in a wide array of climatic conditions and soil types, optimum growth is achieved on well-drained sandy loam soil characterized by adequate sunshine and high soil fertility [3,10]. The plant is often grown as a ratoon crop, where the initial cuts occurs four to six months after planting, with subsequent cuts following at intervals of two to three months, contingent on ecological conditions and management practices at the cultivation site [11]. ...
... It was also apparent that between 0 and 60 DAT across different soil conditioners and under the two watering regimes, there was suppressed growth of plants with respect to NOT and NOL, while there was an accelerated development in all three growth indices thereafter (Figs. [3][4][5]. ...
The vast cultivation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) as an essential oil-bearing plant worldwide relies heavily on its compound citral that holds immense industrial potential. Soil fertility practices greatly affect the growth and quality of these plants, with a majority of the agricultural land globally grappling with water scarcity. In this respect, field experiments were conducted at the University of Embu research farm during the November 2021–September 2022 growing period and aimed to investigate the influence of two different factors, namely; (i) two watering regimes (rainfed and irrigated) and (ii) four soil conditioner levels (control (T1), cow manure (T2), cow manure plus NPK fertilizer (T3), and NPK fertilizer alone (T4)) on the growth and essential oil parameters of C. flexuosus. The field trials were arranged in a split-plot design with three replicates for each treatment. The essential oil from C. flexuosus was obtained using steam distillation method and analyzed for quality using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. Results revealed that treatments T4 and T3 improved the growth of C. flexuosus under rain-fed conditions, implying the plant's sensitivity to soil fertility practices and watering regimes. Herbage from rain-fed plants harvested after 120 days had high oil content, ranging from 0.17 to 0.23 %, while herbage from irrigated plants harvested after 180 days had the lowest oil content, ranging from 0.11 to 0.17 %. Using GC-MS, the main components of C. flexuosus oil were citral (75.97–87.70 %), geranyl acetate (0.80–4.91 %), geraniol (0.80–4.26 %), isogeranial (1.83–3.45 %), and isoneral (1.29–2.78 %). Notably, citral, a racemic mixture of geranial and neral, was found in a high concentration (87.70 %), meeting the acceptable international market standards for its use. Altogether, the major oil compounds, oil yield and growth properties of C. flexuosus in this experiment differed as a function of different soil conditioners under the two watering regimes, and so with the time scale. The outcomes of this research highlight implications for enhancing and bolstering the production of high-value lemongrass oil in Kenya, where it holds potential significance as a vital economic and export-oriented crop.
... are C. flexuosus, C. citratus, and C. martinii var. motia [19]. ...
... C. flexuosus is indigenous to India and cultivated on a large scale in China, Indonesia, Madagascar, Haiti, Dominica, Mexico, and Brazil. In fact, India produces approximately 1000 tons of C. flexuosus AO per year and exports it to Japan, Australia, Germany, England, and America [19]. ...
Cymbopogon flexuosus is a highly valued botanical species with significant applications in the food and food supplement industries, medicine, and cosmetics. The effects of four extraction techniques, supercritical CO2, microwave–ultrasonic, steam distillation, and hydrodistillation techniques, on the yield, phytochemical constituents, and antifungal activity against nine fungal species of Cymbopogon flexuosus aromatic oil (AO) were explored in this investigation. Gas chromatography connected with a mass spectrometry apparatus was employed for the qualitative and quantitative analyses of the investigated plant AOs. In addition, using the broth microdilution method, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were calculated for several fungi species. The supercritical CO2 method gave the highest yield of AO (11.62 ± 0.03 (w/w)) followed by the microwave–ultrasonic method (1.55 ± 0.05% (w/w)) and the steam distillation method (1.24 ± 0.04% (w/w)), while the hydrodistillation methods gave the lowest yield (1.17 ± 0.01 (w/w)). In addition, eighteen molecules were specified in the AOs obtained with the supercritical CO2, microwave–ultrasonic, steam distillation, and hydrodistillation techniques, which constituted 99.36, 98.6, 98.21, and 98.31% (v/v) of the total oils, respectively. Additionally, linalyl acetate was the trending molecule in the microwave–ultrasonic and steam distillation methods, representing 24.61 and 24.34% (v/v), respectively, while geranial was the dominant molecule in the AOs extracted with the hydrodistillation and supercritical CO2 extraction techniques (27.01 and 25.6% (v/v), respectively). The antifungal screening results revealed that the tested C. flexuosus AOs have potential antifungal effects against all the screened fungi species. The antifungal effect of the AOs extracted with the steam distillation and microwave–ultrasonic methods was remarkable compared with that of the commercial antifungal drug Fluconazole. However, the AOs extracted with these two methods have a more potent antifungal effect against Candida parapsilosis than that of Fluconazole with MICs of 3.13 ± 0.01, 3.13 ± 0.01, and 6.25 ± 0.91 µg/mL, respectively. The same effects were also observed against Trichophyton rubrum with MICs of 6.25 ± 0.91 µg/mL, respectively. The results of this investigation demonstrated that the steam distillation and microwave–ultrasonic methods are promising processes for the extraction of C. flexuosus AO with a potent antifungal effect. This may be an advantage for the utilization of C. flexuosus AO over some antifungal synthetic agents commonly utilized as medicines, preservatives, food additives, cosmetics, and nutrient supplements.
... They are native to Asia's tropical and subtropical areas. They are also cultivated in Africa, Central America, the South and other equatorial countries (Khanuja et al. 2005;Padalia et al. 2011;Shah et al. 2012;Ganjewala and Gupta, 2013). ...
Cymbopogon spp . (lemongrass), which is a perennial herb, belongs to the family Poaceae. It has been used in traditional and ayurvedic medicine for over a century in a range of countries. Lemongrass possesses antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial and analgesic applications. It’s also used to treat diabetes, sickness, the flu and pneumonia. The fragrant grass Cymbopogon spp . contains essential oil with a pleasant lemon flavour. But the plants are constantly subjected to a range of environmental stresses, limiting their agricultural output. Plant damage caused by various pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects and weeds results in biotic stresses. Abiotic stresses include drought, heat, salt, heavy metals and cold, which ultimately have a negative impact on agricultural plant potential and output. Biotic and abiotic stresses also affect the secondary metabolites in plants. Abiotic stress (drought, heat, salt, cold) causes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plant cellular compartments. Plants sense external stress via specific receptors and transduce the foreign signal into intracellular downstream signalling pathways that include activation of protein kinase or phosphatase, stimulation of downstream target proteins and phytohormone biosynthesis to improve plant growth and development.
... Trans-(2-chlorovinyl) dimethylethoxysilane extracted from Cyperus rotundus, a well-known medicinal plant used widely in traditional medicine, was reported in another study to have potential antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Aeganathan et al., 2015). Selina-6-en-4-ol is another compound that is reported to have various biological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-protozoan properties (Ganjewala and Gupta, 2013). The bioactive constituents of the polysaccharides might aid in reducing or preventing the incidence of waterborne bacterial and fungal infections, thereby making the Tamarindus polysaccharides a safer alternative for treating potable water. ...
The current study evaluated the effectiveness of Tamarindus indica L. seed polysaccharides in removing fluoride from potable water collected from Sivakasi,Viruthunagar district, Tamil Nadu, India. The physiochemical properties of the water samples were examined, and each parameter was compared to the standard prescribed by Bureau of Indian standards. Most of the parameters were within the permissible limit except for fluoride levels in the Sivakasi water sample. Polysaccharides were isolated from Tamarindus indica L. seeds and the fluoride removal efficacy of the polysaccharides was evaluated. The optimum treatment dosage of the isolated seed polysaccharides was determined using aqueous fluoride solutions of various ppm concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ppm). Tamarindus polysaccharides were added to the aqueous solutions in varying doses (0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 1.0, and 1.2 g), and 0.04 g was observed to be the most effective at removing fluoride (by 60%). It was selected as the optimum dose for treating the fluoride-contaminated water sample. Following the treatment, fluoride concentration in the water sample dropped from 1.8 mg/L to 0.91 mg/L, falling below the BIS standard limit. The findings from the study demonstrated the use of T. indica L. seed polysaccharides as an effective natural coagulant for removing fluoride from potable water. GC-MS and FTIR analysis of the isolated polysaccharide samples were performed. The FTIR results revealed the functional groups that might attribute to the fluoride removal activity of the isolated polysaccharides. The observations from the study suggested that Tamarindus polysaccharides might be used as an alternative to chemical agent used for fluoride removal in order to preserve the environment and human welfare.
... Some elite aromatic species of Cymbopogon are C. flexuosus (lemongrass), C. martinii (palmarosa), C. citratus (West Indian lemongrass), C. winterianus (citronella java), and hybrid of C. nardus × C. jwarancusa (Jamrosa) provides essential oils (EOs) of immense commercial applications in flavors, fragrances, perfumery, foods, and pharmaceuticals [1][2][3][4]. Essential oil of lemongrass is mainly characterized by the presence of citral, geraniol, citronellal, citronellol, elemol, linalool, limonene, 1,8-cineole, methylheptenone, geranyl formate, β-caryophyllene, and geranyl acetate [1,5,6]. Morphologically, Cymbopogon species appear similar but the species differ from each other in oil yield and compositions [3]. ...
Cymbopogon is an important aromatic and medicinal grass with several species of ethnopharmaceutical importance. The genus is extremely rich in secondary metabolites, monoterpenes like geraniol and citral being principal constituents, also used as biomarker for classification and identification of Cymbopogon chemotypes. In the light of this, present study involved RNA sequencing and comparison of expression profiles of four contrasting Cymbopogon species namely C. flexuosus var. Chirharit (citral rich and frost resistant), C. martinii var. PRC-1 (geraniol rich), C. pendulus var. Praman (the most stable and citral-rich genotype), and Jamrosa (a hybrid of C. nardus var. confertiflorus × C. jwarancusa (rich in geraniol and geranyl acetate)). The transcriptome profiles revealed marked differences in gene expression patterns of 28 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of terpenoid metabolic pathways between the four Cymbopogon sp. The major DEGs were Carotenoid Cleavage Dioxygenases (CCD), Aspartate aminotransferase (ASP amino), Mevalonate E-4 hydroxy, AKR, GGPS, FDPS, and AAT. In addition, few TFs related to different regulatory pathways were also identified. The gene expression profiles of DEGs were correlated to the EO yield and their monoterpene compositions. Overall, the PRC-1 (C. martinii) shows distinguished gene expression profiles from all other genotypes. Thus, the transcriptome sequence database expanded our understanding of terpenoid metabolism and its molecular regulation in Cymbopogon species. Additionally, this data also serves as an important source of knowledge for enhancing oil yield and quality in Cymbopogon and closely related taxa. KEY MESSAGE: Unfolding the new secretes surrounding EO biosynthesis and regulation in four contrasting Cymbopogon species.
