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Overview of assessment instruments of anthropometric measurements in the included studies. Notes: *Only female participants. “Female and Male participants. (Paillard et al., 18 Vaghetti et al., 19 Furley and Dörr, 20 Farley et al., 22 Ferrier et al., 24 Lundgren et al. (2014), Barlow et al., 41 Sheppard et al., 42 Coyne et al., 43 Furness et al., 44 Loveless and Minahan, 47 Kilduff et al., 48 Barlow et al., 50 Fernandez-Lopez et al., 51 Sheppard et al., 52 Tran et al., 53 Mendez-Villanueva et al., 55 Farley et al., 56 Minahan et al., 57 Cámara et al.,37–39 Farley et al., 58 Secomb et al., 60 Fernandez de Gamboa et al., 61 Tran et al., 62 Lundgren et al., 64 Bruton et al., 37 Bruton et al., 38 Souza et al., 66 Peirão and Santos, 67 Forsyth et al., 68 Chapman et al. 40 )
Source publication
Identifying high-performing and promising athletes is an important task of national surf associations. However, the scientific foundation of performance indicators in surfing has only developed in recent years. This review aimed to (1) find out which performance characteristics discriminate between surfers of different skill levels, and (2) point o...
Citations
... However, the number of variables in surfing hinders the characterization of indicators that may be associated with better performance. [3][4][5] In this context, surf coaches have endeavored to implement structured training programs to fulfill the demands of high-performance surfing, with special interest in determining the physical capacities that are related to better sporting results and performance. 2,6,7 Previous research has demonstrated the influence of lowerlimb strength and power on surfing athletes' performances. ...
... Therefore, considering the importance of lower-limb strength and power in surfing 6,8,9 and speed as a critical factor in executing maneuvers that align with judging criteria in high-performance surfing, 5,8,10 the purpose of this study was to investigate whether wave-riding speed or heat scores correlate with anthropometric characteristics as well as lower-limb power and strength. Our hypothesis is that physical and anthropometric variables are associated with both heat scores and the speed achieved by professional Brazilian surfers. ...
Purpose : To correlate speed and heat scores with anthropometric variables and lower-limb strength and power in professional surfers. Methods : A total of 19 men participated in simulated competitions on different days. All surfed waves were scored, and each athlete’s best 2 were used for their total heat score. Speed values were extracted by global positioning system and adjusted by Z score. Squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop jump were executed. Anthropometric variables and 1-repetition maximum (1RM) in the half squat were measured. Pearson product–moment correlation was used to analyze the relationships. Results : Height had a significant ( P < .05) inverse association with speed indicators ( r = −.36 to − .68), and body mass index had a moderate association with maximum wave speed of the highest score. Significant correlations with moderate to large magnitudes were found between maximum speed and vertical jumps ( r = .46 to .56), average speed and vertical jumps ( r = .48 to .59), and both maximum and average speed with 1RM ( r = .52–.53). Athletes’ best score and total heat score showed moderate to large associations with vertical jumps and 1RM ( r = .48–.64), whereas second scores were correlated with the reactive strength index of the drop jump ( r = .48) and 1RM ( r = .51). Conclusions : Shorter surfers with lower center of gravity and those with superior lower-limb strength and power achieved greater speed and higher scores. Accordingly, surf coaches may consider prescribing dynamic strength and balance training based on an athlete’s profile to improve performance.
... The current literature involving competitive surfing is heavily weighted towards physiological characteristics and physical preparation requirements for surfers. A recent review 9 identified 36 studies which have investigated the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of surfers. Physiological characteristics of interests include: paddling endurance, paddling power, muscular strength, and mobility. ...
... Only five studies explored specific technical manoeuvres including the bottom turn, 10 aerials 11 and all scoring manoeuvres [12][13][14] and three studies reported on tactical competencies such as wave perception and competitive behaviour. 9 However, these studies were all reviews that focused on scoring and/or technical analysis during oceanbased heats, rather than training design and skill development to prepare for such performance contexts. While the majority of research focuses on physical preparation and technical performance, there is a clear gap in the literature regarding the design of training environments (dry-land or ocean-based) for the purpose of skill development. ...
The recent rise in professionalisation and institutionalisation of competitive surfing has resulted in a dramatic increase in the use of alternative training modalities. These are often employed in an attempt to increase exposure to surf-like activities when appropriate ocean conditions are not available. It is commonly accepted that practice sessions should be grounded in theory, with training content informed by a clear scientific rationale. Despite this, research is yet to offer surfing coaches and surfers effective strategies to assist in implementing appropriate ‘off water’ training modalities. It is widely accepted that integrating a representative learning design is crucial towards the transfer of performance to competition environments. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to promote representative learning design (RLD) as a contemporary, principled framework that can underpin the creation of surfing training design and performance. Examples of constraints relevant to surfing are considered, and the efficacy and rationale of popular training methods are challenged. Finally, practical implications and coaching tools to underpin the implementation of representative learning design in surf training are provided.
... Environmental factors such as wave conditions, water temperature, and wetsuit, which significantly affect muscle performance and fatigue (Barlow et al., 2014;Langenberg et al., 2021;Nessler et al., 2015), are not replicated in this controlled setting. This limitation highlight that isometric shoulder assessment do not capture all the dynamic, sportspecific movements (Klingner et al., 2022) and the various social and environmental factors (Dann et al., 2024), crucial in surfing performance. Therefore, while isometric assessments provide valuable baseline data, they should be complemented with more dynamic, sport-specific tests, align with a Representative Learning Design (Dann et al., 2024) that ensure a more comprehensive evaluation of a surfer's. ...
The scapular region has the highest incidence of acute injuries in surfing. However, little is known about the shoulder strength profile in surfers. The aim of this research was to establish the profile of internal and external rotation strength in a group of youth surfing athletes. Methods: Isometric shoulder internal and external rotation strength was measured using a portable dynamometer in 41 (19 boys e 22 girls) youth surfing athletes (13.3 ± 2.1 years, 49.3 ± 9.8 kg, and 157.4 ± 9.5 cm). Regardless of gender, no significant differences were found between shoulder internal and external rotation strength. However, internal rotation strength was bilateral greater than external rotation strength. When comparing boys and girls, statistically significant differences were only found for the left-arm internal rotation strength when adjusted for body mass. Boys exhibited more strength than girls in all situations. No differences were observed based on the surfer's stance. The data from this research provides valuable information for coaches and trainers working with young surfers, allowing a deeper understanding of the specific shoulder strength profile, for a more effective development of training programs.
... Currently, in Australia, nearly 730,000 adults engage in surfing, and it is believed these numbers align with worldwide participation rates for which it is thought that more than 50 million people engage in surf sports (2). Despite these high participation rates, and the increased interest in competition in the sport, sports science research in surfing is far from extensive, including as it relates to competitive performance (3). Given the growing interest in the sport, and surfing's inclusion as an Olympic Sport from the 2020 Tokyo Olympics onwards, an examination of performance, or strategies that may enhance performance, would be useful for competitive surfers. ...
... Surfing is unique in comparison with other sports as it is subject to considerably more performance influences than many other sports, including the requirement for physical exertion both above and below water; with paddling through water, surfing on water, disembarking the board, and duck diving under waves (3). In competitive surfing, "power" appears to be critical for performance (4,5); surfers use aspects of the board (fins and rails) to drive into and out of the water, often producing spray (which anecdotally judges use visually to help assess power). ...
Surfing is a high participation sport, yet little sport science research exists regarding competitive performance in surfing. Given surfing's inclusion as an Olympic sport from the 2020 Tokyo Olympics onwards, an examination of performance would seem useful. In numerous land-based sports, and in swimming, the importance of a warm-up and muscle heat is well documented. However, surfing is a unique sport in that it is undertaken both above and below water. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the effectiveness of a warm-up in terms of readiness to perform in surfing. We discuss this in the context of thermal regulation, hormone profile change, and the subsequent expression of “power” on waves—a key criteria that surfers are scored for. Nineteen advanced level surfers (i.e., competitive at just below national level in Australia; n = 15 males and n = 4 females) with mean (±SD) age, height, and weight of 24.5 ± 11.6 years, 174.7 ± 9.1 cm, and 67.7 ± 10.2 kg, respectively, were recruited. We adopted a repeated measures pre- and post-design whereby participants engaged in several simulated surfing competitions in an artificial wave pool; once after an active warm-up combined with a passive heat retention strategy (i.e., wrapping themselves in survival blankets—treatment), and once after no warm-up (control). Saliva samples were collected pre- and post-active warm-up, or at equivalent times under control conditions, for the measurement of testosterone and cortisol. Increases in these hormones have previously been associated with an enhanced readiness to compete. Our results demonstrate a clear thermoregulatory benefit from the treatment, with the participants’ core body temperatures typically higher from the end of the warm-up to the end of the surf session following treatment (p ≤ 0.03), and a magnitude of increase in core body temperature once in the water that is greater following treatment (p = 0.01). A small magnitude upward change in testosterone (p = 0.01) and cortisol (p ≤ 0.001) following warm-up was also observed. Finally, warm-up was associated with an improved wave performance compared with the control, with a 20% increase in the performance score typically observed (p ≤ 0.01). We argue that the improved thermal profile may have influenced power and, as such, surfing performance was enhanced.
... The primary objective is to showcase superior wave-riding abilities, style, and control, all while adapting to the dynamic conditions of the ocean. Surfers are judged based on the difficulty and execution of maneuvers, wave selection, and overall performance, with the ultimate aim of earning high scores (52,57). These scores determine the winners of heats, progressing surfers through various rounds of competition. ...
... A thorough assessment of strength, flexibility, and upper-lower body functional testing specific for surfing demands should be based on evidence that targets specific biomechanical movements and physiological components (29,52,91). A battery of physiological and performance tests could be used to evaluate all levels of surfers' weaknesses and strengths (See Table 1). ...
... Therefore, strength and conditioning coaches should focus their training on fine tuning and maintaining their athleticism with higher skilled or competitive surfers. Because competitive surfers compete at surf events, judges will score higher when the surfer completes more highrisk maneuvers such as aerials, rapid turns, and floaters (52). It is recommended that strength and conditioning coaches use and implement training techniques such as plyometrics and acrobatic movements to complete those maneuvers. ...
In the past 20 years, surfing has become a popular, non–age-dependent sport that can be performed at most ocean beaches. As it gains exposure, surfers have recognized the importance of physical preparation to enhance their performance and reduce injury risk. This realization has led to an increase in the study and practice of biomechanical and environmental analysis as well as training methodologies for the competitive surfer. As a result, coaches and athletes are including land-based training protocols to maximize the competitive surfer's performance and are designing them based on their surfing schedules. Not only is this training important for competitive surfers, but also for surfers who engage in this sport recreationally. Therefore, the aim was to provide a needs analysis of surfing components such as environmental factors, biomechanical and physiological demands, and current training methods for performance enhancement.
... 1 Identifying performance characteristics for the specific sport is often one of the first steps of researchers. 2,3 Based on the identified performance characteristics, benchmarks can be created which are useful for professionals involved in a sport. Ideally, these benchmarks help them identify and develop athletes towards elite performance. ...
... This methodological quality assessment method and corresponding cut-off scores were used in three systematic reviews with similar aims. 2,30,31 Studies that were considered of low methodological quality, were excluded from this systematic review. Four categories were used to interpret the level of evidence for the ability of a performance characteristic to discriminate between judoka of different performance levels, according to the categories of van der Fels et al. (2015). ...
Judo is a dynamic and complex sport, and therefore talent programs may benefit from a multidimensional approach to identify clear and reliable performance characteristics in order to monitor and train athletes. However, from both a practical and theoretical point of view, understanding on this topic is limited. This systematic review therefore aimed to (1) identify which multidimensional performance characteristics can discriminate between different performance levels of judoka and (2) find the gaps in literature. To categorize the findings the Groningen Sport Talent Model (GSTM) was applied. A systematic search of MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science was performed following the PRISMA guidelines. In total 23 studies with good to excellent methodological quality were included. All performance characteristics of the GSTM (anthropometrical, physiological, technical, tactical, and psychological) were represented in the included studies. There is strong evidence to suggest that a broad set of physiological characteristics is needed to manage the demands of judo combats. Additionally, there is strong evidence that performance characteristics related to grip fighting discriminate between judoka of different performance levels and higher performance level judoka are characterized by the ability to throw their opponent and to variate in technique. The findings of this review can be used as a basis for talent development and identification in judo, and to optimize training programs. Future research should focus on increasing the understanding of psychological characteristics of judoka and the multidimensional talent trajectory by conducting longitudinal studies.
... The inclusion of surfing at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, as well as the sport's growth and ongoing professionalization offer interesting new avenues for scientists to explore. While some factors that influence surfing performance, such as environmental conditions (e.g., wave height and frequency) (Farley et al., 2017) or the execution of certain manoeuvres (Ferrier et al., 2018;Lundgren et al., 2014) has been investigated, research on psychological factors is scarce (Klingner et al., 2022). Hence, to support practitioners and researchers, further investigations into the determinants of elite performance in surfing are needed. ...
Competitive sport often creates a high-stake and thus a high-pressure environment for its athletes. In the past, research has pointed to the negative effect that competitive pressure might have on skills and movement executions that have been perfected through prior practice. The Attentional Control Theory: Sport (ACTS) suggests that specifically high situational pressure and prior performance failures may negatively affect an athlete's subsequent performance. This study aimed to investigate the influence of situational pressure and previous performance errors on performance (i.e., wave score) in elite surfing while considering various contextual factors. A total of 6497 actions, performed by 80 elite surfers (female n = 28; male n = 52), were annotated based on video recordings of the 2019 World Championship Tour (WCT). A multi-level model was used to analyse the effect of pressure, previous errors and other contextual factors on the wave scores of individual surfers (i.e., events were nested within athletes). Partially confirming previous research, prior errors caused a significant decrease in surfing performance on the following ride. However, neither a significant effect of situational pressure on performance nor inter-individual differences in how prior-errors and situational pressure affected performance were found.
Surfboards are a critical component of surfing performance, yet the relationship between a surfer's anthropometric profile and their surfboard dimensions, as well as the factors influencing surfers’ decision-making around surfboard design and selection within competition, remains unexplored. Forty-two competitive surfers participated in this study. Of the forty-two surfers, the anthropometric profile of twenty-eight females (n = 12) and males (n = 16) was determined (i.e., height, body mass, arm span, body composition), while thirty-one females (n = 15) and males (n = 16) completed a survey to determine their decision-making towards surfboard design and selection within competition. The results demonstrated fewer significant correlations between the anthropometric profiles and surfboard dimensions of female surfers than male surfers and the anthropometric profiles of female surfers explained less variance in their surfboard dimensions compared to male surfers. Fat mass measures contributed more to the variance in female surfers’ surfboard dimensions, whereas lean mass measures contributed more to the variance for male surfers. Survey results also determined that female surfers rated the factors informing their decision-making around surfboard design and selection as less influential compared to male surfers. These findings highlight notable sex-related differences in the relationship between surfers’ anthropometric profile and their competition surfboards, as well as their decision-making processes. Increased exposure and experimentation with surfboard design could benefit female surfers and advance their performance in the sport alongside their male counterparts.
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a sensorimotor training program on maximum ankle dorsiflexion (ankle DF), coordination, dynamic balance and postural control, and lower-limb muscle power, in competitive junior surfers, and its relation to parameters of sensorimotor control required to perform aerial maneuvers. Twelve junior competitive surfers followed a 7-week sensorimotor training program, being assessed pre- and post-program with the knee-to-wall test (KW), Y-Balance test—lower quarter (YBT-LQ), and the countermovement jump test (CMJ). Post-training assessment revealed positive effects on the KW (ankle DF) distance, which increased approximately 2 cm (p < 0.001) for both ankles, and all scores for the YTB-LQ (coordination, dynamic balance, and postural control) variables increased, being significant (p < 0.005) for some reach distances (YBT-LQ—Anterior Left, YBT-LQ—Postero-medial Left, and YTB-LQ Anterior Right). YBT-LQ Anterior Reach Asymmetry also improved by decreasing 1.62 cm (p < 0.001) and the CMJ height (lower limb muscle power) increased 2.89 cm (p < 0.001). The training program proved to effectively enhance parameters of physical performance for this sample, including ankle DF, coordination, dynamic balance, postural control, and lower limb muscle power. This tailored-made task approach can help to optimize surfing performance capabilities and contribute to reducing the risk of injuries while performing aerials.
Background
The inclusion of skateboarding in the Olympics suggests that athletes and coaches are seeking ways to enhance their chances of succeeding on the world stage. Understanding what constitutes performance, and what physical, neuromuscular, and biomechanical capacities underlie it, is likely critical to success.
Objective
The aim was to overview the current literature and identify knowledge gaps related to competitive skateboarding performance and associated physical, technical, and tactical demands of Olympic skateboarding disciplines.
Methods
A systematic scoping review was performed considering the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (Extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines. Data sources were MEDLINE (Ovid), Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and PubMed. We included all peer-reviewed literature after 1970 describing the physiological, neuromuscular, biomechanical, and/or tactical aspects of skateboarding.
Results
Nineteen original articles explored the physiological (n = 9), biomechanical (n = 8), and technical (n = 10) demands of skateboarding. No research explored the tactical demands of competition. Moreover, although competitive males (n = 2 studies) and females (n = 1 study) were recruited as participants, no research directly related skateboarding demands to performance success in competitive environments.
Conclusions
Ultimately, what constitutes and distinguishes competitive skateboarding is unexplored. There is some evidence indicating aspects of the sport require flexibility and elevated and fast force output of the lower limbs, which may be valuable when attempting to maximise ollie height. Nonetheless, a lack of ecological validity, such as using static ollie tests as opposed to rolling, restricted our ability to provide practical recommendations, and inconsistency of terminology complicated delineating discipline-specific outcomes. Future researchers should first look to objectively identify what skaters do in competition before assessing what qualities enable their performance.
