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Ordination of Bungarusfasciatus populations from Mizoram (MZ), West Bengal (WB) and Java (JV) along the first two principal components based on a PCA of the characters Ve, BB, BT, and NBW. Total variance associated with PC1 and PC2 are 64% and 20%, respectively.
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The banded krait, Bungarusfasciatus is a widespread elapid snake, likely to comprise several distinct species in different geographic regions of Asia. Therefore, based on molecular phylogenetics and comparative morphology data, we present an overview of the systematic composition of the species to delimit potential biogeographic boundaries. Our phy...
Citations
... Overall, the evolutionary relationships and taxonomy of Bungarus remain incompletely resolved. Integrative approaches combining morphological, ecological, and expanded molecular data will help clarify species boundaries and diversification processes within this medically significant snake genus [96][97][98][99][100]. ...
The events of the Cenozoic era such as mountain formation caused Iran to become one of the most amazing biodiversity hotspots in the world today. This pioneering study on Iranian snake biogeography integrates historical and ecological analyses. A phylogeographic review traces speciation and dispersal, while cluster analysis with a new snake checklist assesses faunistic similarities within Iran and its surroundings. Jaccard and Sorenson indices generate similarity dendrograms, Indicator Species Analysis pinpoints regional key species, and Endemism index calculates regional endemism rates, enriching our knowledge of Iran’s species diversity. Phylogeographic analyses identify four biogeographical corridors for snake ingress into Iran: the Arabian region through southwestern Iran, the Western Asian mountainous transition zone via northwestern Iran, the Turanian region into northeastern Iran, and the Indus River Valley into southeastern and eastern Iran. Dendrogram analysis divides snake fauna into three groups. The first group associates western Zagros and Khuzestan fauna with the Sahara and Arabian regions. The second group links Kopet Dagh and Turkmen Steppe fauna with the Turanian region, and Central Plateau and Baluchistan fauna with the Iranian region. The third group connects northwest highlands, Alborz and Zagros mountains, and Caspian Sea coasts with the Western Asian Mountain transition zone. The study validates broad biogeographic patterns via ecoregional associations and indicator species analysis, providing finer resolution. Species like Platyceps najadum in Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests exemplify ecoregional alignment, while Zagros and Alborz mountains exhibit unique faunal indicators, indicating species-level divergence. Shared indicators among widespread ecoregions reflect habitat continuity; exclusive indicators emphasize regional distinctiveness. Despite endemic species prevalence, they seldom act as significant indicators due to various factors. Our research confirms the Zagros Mountains, Khuzestan Plain, Alborz Mountains, and Persian Gulf coasts as snake diversity hotspots, marked by higher species richness compared to other Iranian regions.
... So far, many aspects of reproductive biology have been described among elapids (e.g., Tam et al. 1969;Lance 1976;Shine 1977;Shine and Keogh 1996;Shine et al. 2007;Marques et al. 2013). However, reproductive data on snakes in the genus Bungarus focuses almost entirely on post-mating aspects such as nesting, oviposition, and morphometrics of eggs and neonates (e.g., Evans 1905;Webb-Peploe 1946;Soderberg 1973;Whitaker 1978;Daniel 2002;Chanhome 2013;Knierim et al. 2019;Ray et al. 2020;Biakzuala et al. 2023), leaving many behavioral aspects of mating unrepresented. Herein we report copulation in the Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus), based on a single observation from northern West Bengal, India, supplemented by crowdsourced observational data. ...
... Herein we report copulation in the Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus), based on a single observation from northern West Bengal, India, supplemented by crowdsourced observational data. Despite a wide distribution throughout most of southern and southeastern Asia (Biakzuala et al. 2023), this species is nowhere abundant (Stuart et al. 2013), which perhaps explains the lack of qualitative data on reproduction. All relevant photographs were submitted as photographic vouchers to the Zoological Reference Collection, Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, National University of Singapore. ...
... However, recent data from molecular phylogenetics and comparative morphology has indicated that three distinct taxonomic entities (clades) may exist with distinct Indo-Myanmar, Sundaic and East Asian Sundaland lineages (including Southern China) (Fig. 1). As a result, the distribution of B. fasciatus, sensu stricto, may be restricted to only the Indo-Myanmar region (Biakzuala et al., 2023). In India, the snake has been reported from various states such as Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (Chandra et al., 2013;Majumder et al., 2012;Prakash, 2016;Stuart et al., 2013). ...
... B. fasciatus is a medically relevant snake prevalent in North East India and responsible for occasional snakebite incidents (Biakzuala et al., 2023;Kakati et al., 2023). However, the exact number of bites due to B. fasciatus in this region is lacking as most of the victims do not report to the hospitals for treatment and mostly rely on traditional healers and locally available herbal medicines. ...
... 1. Distribution range of Bungarus fasciatus. The snake icons in color "Red" depict the Indo-Myanmar lineage, "Green" depicts the East Asian Sundaland lineage, and "Blue" depicts the Sundaic lineage (Adapted from Biakzuala et al. (Biakzuala et al., 2023)). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.) ...
Bungarus fasciatus also referred to as the Banded krait is a snake which possesses venom and belongs to the Elapidae family. It is widely distributed across the Indian subcontinent and South East Asian countries and is responsible for numerous snakebites in the population. B. fasciatus possesses a neurotoxic venom and envenomation by the snake results in significant morbidity and occasional morbidity in the victim if not treated appropriately. In this study, the efficacy of Indian polyvalent antivenom (Premium Serums polyvalent antivenom) was evaluated against the venom of B. fasciatus from Guwahati, Assam (India) employing the Third-generation antivenomics technique followed by identification of venom proteins from three poorly immunodepleted peaks (P5, P6 and P7) using LC-MS/MS analysis. Seven proteins were identified from the three peaks and all these venom proteins belonged to the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) superfamily. The identified PLA2 proteins were corroborated by the in vitro enzymatic activities (PLA2 and Anticoagulant activity) exhibited by the three peaks and previous reports of pathological manifestation in the envenomated victims. Neutralization of enzymatic activities by Premium Serums polyvalent antivenom was also assessed in vitro for crude venom, P5, P6 and P7 which revealed moderate to poor inhibition. Inclusion of venom proteins/peptides which are non-immunodepleted or poorly immunodepleted into the immunization mixture of venom used for antivenom production may help in enhancing the efficacy of the polyvalent antivenom.
... Contrarily, the two specimens of this morph (MZMU269; MZMU270) cluster with the specimens of S. gorei in our morphological analysis thereby necessitating the taxonomic treatment for this completely plain morph from Mizoram as S. gorei until there is confirmatory work from DNA data. Because the specimens from different populations in this work are examined by different persons, they were re-examined and statistically tested to avoid any potential recorder bias following the similar approach in Biakzuala et al. (2023), thereby the one-way ANCOVA test did not detect any statistically significant difference between the two readings (p > 0.05). Furthermore, our readings and those from Smart et al. (2021) in the common specimens examined (n ¼ 21) were tested for recorder bias. ...
Background
Snakebite envenoming, classified as a neglected tropical disease, poses a significant threat to life in India, where it is estimated to cause 58 000 fatalities as well as 140 000 morbidities annually. To reduce the occurrence of snakebite, we need a comprehensive understanding of human–snake conflict ecology. Snake rescue networks represent a vital resource for gathering such ecological data.
Methods
In this study, we utilised snake rescue data from 520 rescue encounters carried out by a local rescue network in Hooghly, West Bengal, from July 2020 to October 2022, to investigate patterns of human–snake conflict and the influence of climatic factors on these patterns.
Results
The spectacled cobra Naja naja was the most encountered of the five venomous species involved in 365 rescues. Our analysis revealed a significant correlation between rescue location and venomous/non-venomous encounters, with non-venomous encounters being more prevalent inside built-up locations. Rainfall on the previous day significantly increased encounters and influenced the species involved, while daily minimum temperature also influenced encounters with venomous species. We also found that both Bungarus (krait) species present were mostly encountered between 18:00 h and midnight.
Conclusions
This study highlights the multifaceted factors influencing human-snake conflicts in the region, including seasonality, geographic location, rainfall patterns, and temperature dynamics. It underscores the potential of snake rescue data as a valuable resource for deepening our understanding of regional variations in snake–human interactions.
This paper reviews studies of the snakes of northeastern India published between 2001and 2024 identified from searchable databases, covering diversity, range extension, distribution records, new genus, new species, redescription, rediscovery, and taxonomic revision. This analysis of the literature and publicly available information presents an updated checklist of 126 snake species representing 12 families and 46 genera, along with their distribution across states in northeastern India and their IUCN Red List status. The study also reveals a research gap in some northeastern states that provides opportunities for further regional studies.
We described a new species of elapid snake genus Bungarus from the Tenasserim Mountain Range in Ratchaburi Province, western Thailand. Bungarus sagittatus sp. nov. can be distinguished from all congeners by having the combination of 15 dorsal scale rows; 215–217 ventral scales; 48–56 undivided subcaudal; prefrontal suture 2.4–2.6 times length of internasal suture; anterior chin shields larger than posterior chin shields; head of adult uniform black while juvenile black with small dim white patches on temporal and parietal areas; dorsal body black, with 25–31 white narrow bands, white and black bands at midbody covering 1.5–3.0 and 4.5–6.0 vertebral scales, respectively; dorsal body black bands not intruding ventrals or intruding ventrals less than 0.5 times of width of outer dorsal scales; ventral surface of body immaculate white; ventral side of tail white with a row of dark brown triangular patches on middle pointing posteriorly; tail relatively long, tail length/total length 0.140–0.143. Genetically, the new species has uncorrected pairwise divergences of ≥ 8.29% of the mitochondrial cytochrome b from other Bungarus species. Currently, the new species is only known from the type locality.
