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Fatality records for American cave-diving fatalities (n = 368) occurring between 1969 and 2007 were examined and circumstances preceding each death categorized. Safety rules breached were noted in each case. The number of deaths per year peaked in the mid-1970s and has diminished since. Drowning was the most frequent cause of death, most often afte...
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... training status of the remaining 86 (23%) divers could not be deter- mined from information contained within the records. The number of deaths per year within the dataset appears to diminish over time, as shown in Figure 3, while the proportion of divers who were trained appears to have increased over the same period, as shown in Figure 4. ...
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Anchialine caves are inland, salinity stratified, submerged caves in limestone or volcanic basalt, whereas marine caves are located offshore, completely beneath the seafloor. These caves contain a remarkable biodiversity, with numerous, new higher taxa being recorded in recent decades. While some faunas are Tethyan relicts with highly anomalous dis...
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... Unmanned submersible vehicles such as ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) play a crucial role in subsea inspection, remote surveillance, and underwater cave exploration [1], [2], [3]. They are particularly useful in inspecting deep-water structures and surveying confined spaces that are beyond the reach of human scuba divers [4], [5]. In a typical mission, ROVs are controlled by human operators from a surface vessel, who are responsible for the safe and efficient maneuvering [6], [7]. ...
Underwater ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) are unmanned submersible vehicles designed for exploring and operating in the depths of the ocean. Despite using high-end cameras, typical teleoperation engines based on first-person (egocentric) views limit a surface operator's ability to maneuver and navigate the ROV in complex deep-water missions. In this paper, we present an interactive teleoperation interface that (i) offers on-demand "third"-person (exocentric) visuals from past egocentric views, and (ii) facilitates enhanced peripheral information with augmented ROV pose in real-time. We achieve this by integrating a 3D geometry-based Ego-to-Exo view synthesis algorithm into a monocular SLAM system for accurate trajectory estimation. The proposed closed-form solution only uses past egocentric views from the ROV and a SLAM backbone for pose estimation, which makes it portable to existing ROV platforms. Unlike data-driven solutions, it is invariant to applications and waterbody-specific scenes. We validate the geometric accuracy of the proposed framework through extensive experiments of 2-DOF indoor navigation and 6-DOF underwater cave exploration in challenging low-light conditions. We demonstrate the benefits of dynamic Ego-to-Exo view generation and real-time pose rendering for remote ROV teleoperation by following navigation guides such as cavelines inside underwater caves. This new way of interactive ROV teleoperation opens up promising opportunities for future research in underwater telerobotics.
... Considering the intrinsic and objective difficulty in their exploration [26][27][28], the knowledge of subterranean habitats, and of the inhabiting species, is still far from satisfactory. Most researchers' efforts have been given to the study of the species showing the highest degree of adaptation to subterranean environments (e.g., [18,29,30]), while studies on apparently less adapted ones are still limited [31][32][33]. ...
Subterranean environments are often characterized by a natural gradient of microclimatic conditions and trophic resources, showing a higher trophic availability and a lower microclimatic stability in the shallowest area (close to the cave entrance), while the opposite occurs in the deepest sections. The shallowest areas of subterranean environments (e.g., the entrance and twilight zone, Mesovoid Shallow Substratum) act as ecotones between the surface habitats and the deep areas, creating a particular habitat which can be exploited by numerous species with different degrees of adaptation to subterranean environments. Species living in these ecotones may hold a key role in sustaining the entire ecosystem, as they are likely one of the major drivers of allochthonous organic matter. Indeed, these species are usually facultative cave-dwellers, meaning that they are able to exit and forage on the surface. Once these species are back inside the cave, they provide the local community with different typologies of organic matter (e.g., feces, eggs), which represent one of the most important sources of organic carbon. Therefore, studying which ecological features may exert significant effects on the abundance of these species may be of great help in understanding the ecosystem dynamics and the functional role of each species. In this study we analyzed the data collected through a year-round monitoring program, aiming to assess the potential effects that both abiotic and biotic features may have on the abundance of three facultative cave species. We focused on seven caves located in Monte Albo (Sardinia, Italy). The cave environments were divided into 3-meter sectors, and within each cave sector, microclimatic and biological data were seasonally recorded. We focused on the following facultative cave species: the spiders Metellina merianae and Tegenaria sp. and the snail Oxychilus oppressus. Different relationships were observed between the ecological features and the abundance of the three species. The two spiders were more abundant in warmer cave sectors closer to the cave entrance, especially the M. merianae. On the other hand, the snail tended to be more abundant farther from the cave entrance and in more illuminated cave sectors, probably because sunlight promotes the abundance of some of its trophic resources (e.g., lichens, vegetation). Furthermore, O. oppressus was the only species whose abundance and cave distribution was significantly affected by seasonality. This study provides useful and novel information to understand the population dynamics of facultative cave species and their role in subterranean ecosystems.
... Moreover, underwater caves often present a pristine capsule preserved in time with major archaeological secrets [3], [4]. Underwater cave exploration and mapping by human divers, however, is a tedious, labor-intensive, extremely dangerous operation even for highly skilled people [5]. Therefore, enabling Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) to enter, navigate, map, and explore underwater caves is of significant importance [6], [7]; Fig. 1 shows an ROV deployment scenario inside an underwater cave system. ...
... Moreover, underwater caves often present a pristine capsule preserved in time with major archaeological secrets [12]. Underwater cave exploration and mapping by human divers, however, is a tedious, labor-intensive, extremely dangerous operation even for highly skilled people [3]. Therefore, enabling Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) to enter, navigate, map, and finally exit an underwater cave is important to ensure the safety and efficacy of a mapping mission, as well as to potentially generate more accurate maps; Fig. 1 shows an ROV deployment scenario inside the Ballroom cavern at Ginnie Springs, Florida. ...
Underwater caves are challenging environments that are crucial for water resource management, and for our understanding of hydro-geology and history. Mapping underwater caves is a time-consuming, labor-intensive, and hazardous operation. For autonomous cave mapping by underwater robots, the major challenge lies in vision-based estimation in the complete absence of ambient light, which results in constantly moving shadows due to the motion of the camera-light setup. Thus, detecting and following the caveline as navigation guidance is paramount for robots in autonomous cave mapping missions. In this paper, we present a computationally light caveline detection model based on a novel Vision Transformer (ViT)-based learning pipeline. We address the problem of scarce annotated training data by a weakly supervised formulation where the learning is reinforced through a series of noisy predictions from intermediate sub-optimal models. We validate the utility and effectiveness of such weak supervision for caveline detection and tracking in three different cave locations: USA, Mexico, and Spain. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed model, CL-ViT, balances the robustness-efficiency trade-off, ensuring good generalization performance while offering 10+ FPS on single-board (Jetson TX2) devices.
... One of the most iconic cave species is the olm, Proteus anguinus, an aquatic salamander distributed in the Dinaric karst in the South-Eastern Europe (Sket, 1997;Gorički et al., 2017). Because it is extremely difficult to study Proteus in the wild (Buzzacott et al., 2009;Balázs et al., 2020), most of the available knowledge comes from captive observations (Juberthie et al., 1996;Ipsen and Knolle, 2017;Aljančič, 2019). This neotenic salamander has a slow development, becoming sexually mature after 14 years and reproducing every 12.5 for at least 50/60 years (Voituron et al., 2011;Ipsen and Knolle, 2017). ...
An extraordinary longevity has been observed in some cave species, and this raised the hypothesis that a longer lifespan may be considered one of the characteristic traits of these animals. However, only a few cave species have been studied thus far, and a firm conclusion remains to be drawn. Here we review the available knowledge on the longevity of subterranean species, point out the limitations of previous studies, and provide suggestions for future studies to answer important questions regarding the longevity in cave animals, its adaptive value and the related promoting factors. We also argue that studying the longevity in cave animals will contribute to the field of aging, especially to understanding the evolution of this phenomenon.
... Furthermore, cave exploration requires well-trained researchers mastering the use of speleological equipment (Zagmajster et al., 2010). Even more challenging, in this sense, are those studies set in submerged passages of freshwater and marine caves (Exley, 1983;Iliffe & Bowen, 2001), as testified by the frequent fatalities associated with cave diving (Buzzacott et al., 2009 (Mammola et al., 2016;Polak, 1997;Uéno, 1987;Wilkens et al., 1986). Yet, in this case the existence of a habitat bias should be clearly acknowledged. ...
• Caves and other subterranean habitats fulfill the requirements of experimental model systems to address general questions in ecology and evolution. Yet, the harsh working conditions of these environments and the uniqueness of the subterranean organisms have challenged most attempts to pursuit standardized research.
• Two main obstacles have synergistically hampered previous attempts. First, there is a habitat impediment related to the objective difficulties of exploring subterranean habitats and our inability to access the network of fissures that represents the elective habitat for the so-called “cave species.” Second, there is a biological impediment illustrated by the rarity of most subterranean species and their low physiological tolerance, often limiting sample size and complicating laboratory experiments.
• We explore the advantages and disadvantages of four general experimental setups (in situ, quasi in situ, ex situ, and in silico) in the light of habitat and biological impediments. We also discuss the potential of indirect approaches to research. Furthermore, using bibliometric data, we provide a quantitative overview of the model organisms that scientists have exploited in the study of subterranean life.
• Our over-arching goal is to promote caves as model systems where one can perform standardized scientific research. This is important not only to achieve an in-depth understanding of the functioning of subterranean ecosystems but also to fully exploit their long-discussed potential in addressing general scientific questions with implications beyond the boundaries of this discipline.
... Another possible application for such an exoskeleton is the enhancement of scooters and other diving equipment used to propel divers or keep them at a certain depth. Especially when more than one person is operating underwater at the same time, which is a key safety requirement (Buzzacott et al., 2009), the risk of a collision or interference with other machinery must be kept to a minimum. The same principles of the soft exoskeleton may be applied here which make the overall use of these systems safer. ...
Autonomous and remotely operated underwater vehicles allow us to reach places which have previously been inaccessible and perform complex repair, exploration and analysis tasks. As their navigation is not infallible, they may cause severe damage to themselves and their often fragile surroundings, such as flooded caves, coral reefs, or even accompanying divers in case of a collision. In this study, we used a shallow neural network, consisting of interlinking PID controllers, and trained by a genetic algorithm, to control a biologically inspired AUV with a soft and compliant exoskeleton. Such a compliant structure is a versatile and passive solution which reduces the accelerations induced by collisions to 56% of the original mean value acting upon the system, thus, notably reducing the stress on its components and resulting reaction forces on its surroundings. The segmented structure of this spherical exoskeleton protects the encased system without limiting the use of cameras, sensors or manipulators.
... Unfortunately, search and recovery often becomes a task that many underwater cave explorers must also undertake. Although improved safety protocols, better equipment, and a stronger mandate for training have led to a significant decline in the frequency of cave diving-related fatalities over the years (Buzzacott, Zeigler, Denoble, & Vann, 2009), underwater caving and associated explorations remain characterized by a relatively high fatalityto-participant ratio. ...
In addition to various physical obstacles, the cave environment presents numerous psychological stressors that challenge human explorers. Sources of psychological stress include logistic issues (e.g., limitations to access, communication, and the availability of equipment), a lack of normal sensory stimuli, isolation and confinement, high performance demands, and social conflict associated with team coordination and requirements for cooperation. Thus, the success and safety of caving expeditions depend on the ability of explorers to effectively cope with highly stressful conditions and task demands. This was the first study to investigate coping within the context of caving and cave exploration. Utilizing scoring criteria from Suedfeld, Brcic, and Legkaia (2009), the narratives of 30 cave explorers were content analyzed for mentions of coping strategies across different expedition phases (pre-, during-, and postexpedition). Nationality and leadership status were also examined as potential moderators of coping. Narratives on the exploration of terrestrial, underwater, and terraqueous (i.e. sump-containing) caves were treated as unique conditions given marked differences in these forms of cave exploration. Consistent with previous research on groups performing in extreme and unusual environments, references to problem-focused coping strategies were, overall, more common than those to emotion-focused strategies. However, temporal analyses of coping across expedition phases showed that a more balanced coping orientation emerged post-expedition, with a significant difference in the use of problem-focused versus emotion-focused strategies no longer detectable. Significant effects of cave exploration type and nationality on the reference percentage of particular coping strategies were also detected. The relevance and implications of these findings are discussed, as well as limitations and directions for future research.
... The most common cause of death in cave diving is drowning after getting lost when a diver loses visual or tactile contact with the lifeline, either because of inattention while navigating through a complex system or else because of suspended particulate in the water column [2,3]. Other causes of drowning include arterial gas embolisms, cardiac events, central nervous system oxygen toxicity seizures, hypoxia, and others [1][2][3]. ...
... The most common cause of death in cave diving is drowning after getting lost when a diver loses visual or tactile contact with the lifeline, either because of inattention while navigating through a complex system or else because of suspended particulate in the water column [2,3]. Other causes of drowning include arterial gas embolisms, cardiac events, central nervous system oxygen toxicity seizures, hypoxia, and others [1][2][3]. Preservation of the forensic evidence is important, therefore, to establish the likely chain of events that led to death. Since forming in 1999 the IUCRR have established standard recovery procedures for cave diving fatalities. ...
Each year in the US three divers, on average, perish inside flooded caves and their remains require recovery. Recovery is a hazardous undertaking often performed by members of the International Underwater Cave Rescue and Recovery (IUCRR) team, in collaboration with local law enforcement and medical examiners/coroners. Since forming in 1999 the IUCRR have established standard recovery procedures for cave diving fatalities. This article reviews each stage of the recovery; the call out, arrival on site, the search, recording/preserving the evidence, the recovery, the handover and post-recovery record-keeping. A series of five cases highlight the challenges IUCRR divers are trained to face. It is strongly recommended local dive teams do not attempt to recover bodies from within flooded caves. IUCRR divers are trained to utilize a uniform procedure that is acceptable to the local law enforcement Incident Command System.
... In 1966, an American report contained 11 cave and spring diving fatalities out of 86 documented skin and scuba diving fatalities. 1 Since then, hundreds of recreational divers have died in US caves. 2 In 1979, Sheck Exley published the first cave diving instructional text, called Basic cave diving: blueprint for survival, that provided safe cave diving guidelines and used accident analysis to illustrate the effectiveness of these practices. 3 At that time, training agencies reached a consensus that most cave diving deaths were caused by breaking one or more of the following guidelines: 4 • always limit penetration into the cave to one-third of the starting amount of gas; • always have a continuous guideline to the surface; • always dive at, or shallower than, a safe depth for the gas being used. ...
... Previous cave diving fatality research compared trained with untrained divers but the continued relevance of the five rules has not been examined since they were finalised in 1984. 2 Technology has advanced remarkably in recent decades in all fields of engineering and scuba diving equipment is no exception. In 1997, AP Valves released the first production closed circuit rebreather (CCR) marketed for recreational diving, which soon gained popularity in the technical diving community including among cave divers. ...
... The causes of each fatality were classified into four consecutive steps, as described previously in diving fatality root cause analyses. 2,7,8 The 'medical cause of death' was accepted as established by a medical examiner. Based on available evidence, root causes were classified as: 'second tier', a mutually exclusive binary classification based on common circumstances associated with each cause of death (e.g., ran out of gas: yes/no); the 'harmful action' that was thought to have led to the second tier status, and finally the 'trigger', the reason the harmful action happened (the most significant contributing factor). ...
Introduction:
Cave divers enter an inherently dangerous environment that often includes little visibility, maze-like passageways and a ceiling of rock that prevents a direct ascent to the surface in the event of a problem.
Methods:
Reports of cave diving fatality cases occurring between 01 July 1985 and 30 June 2015 collected by Divers Alert Network were reviewed. Training status, safety rules violated, relevancy of the violations, and root causes leading to death were determined.
Results:
A total of 161 divers who died were identified, 67 trained cave divers and 87 untrained. While the annual number of cave diving fatalities has steadily fallen over the last three decades, from eight to less than three, the proportion of trained divers among those fatalities has doubled. Data regarding trained cave divers were divided into two equal 15-year time periods. Trained cave divers who died in the most recent time period were older but little else differed. The most common cause of death was asphyxia due to drowning, preceded by running out of breathing gas, usually after getting lost owing to a loss of visibility caused by suspended silt. An overwhelming majority of the fatalities occurred in the state of Florida where many flooded caves are located.
Conclusion:
Even with improvements in technology, the greatest hazards faced by cave divers remain unchanged. Efforts to develop preventative interventions to address these hazards should continue.
