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Number of identified taxa according to number of sampled ships (all shipping studies). 3.3 OTHER TAXA (BACTERIA, FUNGI AND PROTOZOANS)
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The abundance and diversity of species in ballast water, a recognised vector for the accidental introduction of nonindigenous organisms, has been examined through many studies around the world over the last 25 years. The results of European research activities are summarised in this contribution by outlining the objectives of some of these studies,...
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... the 14 European ship sampling studies considered here, a total of 1508 samples (1219 ballast water, 289 tank sediment) were collected on 550 ships (Table 1). The total number of taxa identified during all completed shipping studies varied between 3 and 502 per study ( Fig. 1) and the number of taxa identified overall was 990 (Table A1, available at http://www.ku.lt/nemo/EuroAquaInvaders.htm). The diversity of species found included e.g. bacteria, fungi, protozoans (summarized as "other taxa"), algae, invertebrates of different life stages including resting stages, and fishes with a body length up to 15 cm ...
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... http://www.ku.lt/nemo/EuroAquaInvaders.htm). The diversity of species found included e.g. bacteria, fungi, protozoans (summarized as "other taxa"), algae, invertebrates of different life stages including resting stages, and fishes with a body length up to 15 cm (Table A1). More species were identified in those studies which sampled more vessels (Fig. ...
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... In addition, the specimen was captured near the major commercial port of Gijón, where not only have non-native species been previously n recorded (Cabal et al., 2006), but also where merchant vessels from the species´range had docked in the weeks prior to the capture (personal communication, Port Authority of Gijón). Ballast water from ships is a significant transport vector of non-native and invasive aquatic species (Gollasch et al., 2002). In the eastern Atlantic, ballast water has been identified out as a mechanism for the arrival of several native fishes from the western Atlantic, including Micropogonias undulatus (Linnaeus, 1766) (Stevens et al., 2004), Trinectes maculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) (Wolff, 2005) and Cynoscion regalis (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) (Morais & Teodósio, 2016;Bañón et al., 2018). ...
Diapterus brevirostris (Sauvage, 1879) is a fish of the family Gerreidae, native to the tropical and subtropical waters of the Pacific coast of America. A specimen of this species was captured off the coast of Asturias, Spain. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of the genus Diapterus in the North Atlantic. Given its small size (6.4 cm), it is likely that the species was present in the area for a relatively short time. Although the introduction pathway is unknown, the species' native area and the proximity of a major port to the site of capture suggest that ship's ballast water is the most likely vector of introduction.
... Several vectors for the introduction of both macro-and microorganisms have been hypothesized, with the release of ballast water from transoceanic tankers and bulk carriers considered the primary source (Carlton, 1985;Williams et al., 1988;Carlton & Geller, 1993;Smith et al., 1996;Chu et al., 1997;Gollasch et al., 2000Gollasch et al., , 2002Murphy et al., 2002;Dobbs et al., 2003;Radziejewska et al., 2006;Verna et al., 2016). These vessels take on large quantities of water to maintain their trim and stability during transit. ...
... Estimates of the amount of this sediment vary from tens of tons (Drake et al., 2005) to as much as 200 tons per merchant vessel (Johengen et al., 2005). Entrained in both the ballast water and sediment are a wide array of aquatic organisms, plant debris, and man-made or natural objects that are discharged into the ports as well (Carlton & Geller, 1993;Smith et al., 1996;Chu et al., 1997;Gollasch et al., 2000Gollasch et al., , 2002. Included among these are foraminifera (Carlton & Geller, 1993;Chu et al., 1997;Galil & Hülsmann, 1997;Gollasch et al., 1998;Macdonald, 1998;Lavoie et al., 1999;Smith et al., 1999;McGann et al., 2000). ...
We investigated the potential role of ballast sediment from coastal and transoceanic oil tankers arriving and de-ballasting in Port Valdez as a vector for the introduction of invasive benthic foraminifera in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Forty-one ballast sediment samples were obtained during 1998–1999 from 11 oil tankers that routinely discharged their ballast in Prince William Sound after sailing from other West Coast (Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor, San Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound) or foreign ports (Japan, Korea, and China) where they originally ballasted. Forty of these samples contained benthic foraminifera, including 27 (66%) with the introduced species Trochammina hadai Uchio from nine (81%) of the ships. In all, 59 species were recovered and foraminiferal abundance peaked at 27,000 specimens per gram dry sediment. Of the 41 samples, three were stained and living benthic foraminifera were recovered in all three of them. The entrained foraminifera reflected the number of times ballasting occurred (single or multiple sources), the location of ballasting (estuarine or offshore), and post-acquisition alteration of the sediment (i.e., growth of gypsum crystals at the possible expense of calcareous tests). In temperate regions, sediment samples resulting from single-source ballasting in estuaries (SSBE), multiple-source ballasting in estuaries (MSBE), single-source ballasting offshore (SSBO), and a combination of SSBO and SSBE or MSBE, typically contained increasingly higher species richness, respectively. The potential for foreign species invasion is dependent on the presence of viable candidates and their survivability, their abundance in the ballasting location, and the number of times ballasting occurs, most of which are evident from the ship's ballasting history. We estimate that 442.1 billion to 8.84 trillion living foraminifera were introduced into Port Valdez in a single year, suggesting it is quite likely that an invasive species could be successfully established there.
Trochammina hadai is a good example of a successful invasive in Prince William Sound for the following reasons: 1) the species is abundant enough in U.S. West Coast and foreign ports where ballasting occurs that sufficient individuals needed for reproduction may be transported to the receiving waters; 2) Port Valdez, in particular, receives repeated and frequent inoculations from the same source ports where T. hadai is present; 3) large quantities of sediment are taken up by commercial vessels during ballasting and benthic foraminifera occur in abundance in ballast sediment; 4) ballast sediment provides a suitable environment in which benthic foraminifera can survive for extended periods of time during transport; 5) T. hadai flourishes in a wide range of temperatures and environmental conditions that characterize both the ports where ballasting takes place as well as in Port Valdez where de-ballasting occurs; and 6) the species is capable of asexual reproduction and possibly the ability to form a dormant resting stage, both of which have the potential to lower the threshold for colonization. Clearly, ballast sediment is a viable vector for the introduction of T. hadai and other invasives into Alaskan ports and elsewhere worldwide.
... Ballast water discharge can introduce potential HAOP causing negative impact to aquatic ecosystems, human health and economic activities worldwide. BW studies conducted in different world's oceans, have demonstrated that ships are involved in the transfer of aquatic organisms across natural boundaries (Howarth, 1981;Carlton, 1985;Williams et al., 1988;Hallegraeff, 1993;Rigby and Hallegraeff, 1996;Macdonald and Davidson, 1997;Hay et al., 1997;Gollasch, 1998;Gollasch et al., 2000aGollasch et al., , 2000bOlenin et al., 2000;Ruiz et al., 2000;Wonham et al., 2001;Gollasch, 2002;Gollasch et al., 2002;Murphy et al., 2002;Coutts et al., 2003). It is estimated that BW are responsible for the transfer of approximately 7.000-10.000 ...
The ability of microalgae to preserve viable in coastal sediments as resting forms provides a reservoir of biodiversity and a useful tool to determine species spreadings. This study represents the first port baseline survey on dinoflagellate cysts, investigated in nine Adriatic ports during a cross border project. 40 dinoflagellate taxa were detected. The assemblages resulted in all ports dominated by Lingulodinium polyedra and Alexandrium minutum/affine/tamutum group. General separation to the western and eastern side of the Adriatic regarding cysts assemblage composition, partially abundance, was observed. Six taxa were detected as non-indigenous species for the Adriatic. Two taxa are included in the list of harmful aquatic organisms, indicating the potential threat of ballast waters in the Adriatic. Potential spreading of taxa by general circulation and ballast waters, intra- and extra-Adriatic was investigated. The entering in to force of the ballast waters management regulations should enhance prospects to minimize future harmful impacts.
... Many studies undertaken in different parts of the world have shown that ships´ballast water is a major facilitator for the transfer of aquatic organisms, including human pathogens, across natural boundaries (e.g., Medcof, 1975;Carlton, 1985;Ruiz et al., 2000;Gollasch et al., 2002;David et al., 2007). Following their primary introduction, secondary spread may occur as introduced species are further transferred by, e.g., coastal or local shipping, boating, fisheries etc., or spread by natural means (e.g., Minchin et al., 2005;Simkanin et al., 2009;Rup et al., 2010;Bailey et al., 2011a;Darling et al., 2012;David et al., 2013). ...
... Several ballast water sampling studies were previously conducted in Europe and the diversity of living organisms found included viruses, bacteria, human pathogens, fungi, protozoa, algae (unicellular phytoplankton algae and macroalgae), invertebrates and fish. In total > 1000 species were identified -the dominant groups were crustaceans, molluscs and polychaetes, as well as algae (e.g., Medcof, 1975;Gollasch et al., 2002;Bailey et al., 2005). The majority of these species were small and therefore better enabled to withstand the physical forces caused by the vessel ballast water pumps during the ballasting and deballasting processes. ...
... The majority of these species were small and therefore better enabled to withstand the physical forces caused by the vessel ballast water pumps during the ballasting and deballasting processes. However, living fishes with a body length up to 15 cm were also found inside ballast tanks (Gollasch et al., 2002(Gollasch et al., , 2015David et al., 2015b). ...
The ballast water management convention incorporates principles of risk assessment. A new ballast water management risk assessment model was developed to support the implementation of most efficient management measures, which we also present as a flowchart decision support system model. The risk assessment model was tested using data from port baseline surveys where available, and real shipping and ballast water discharges data. The here presented ballast water management risk assessment and possible management options are applicable elsewhere to support and improve complex decision making in the implementation of management requirements according to the ballast water management convention. If needed, the model may easy be adapted to address local specifics in any other region or area.
... As a result, vessels depend fundamentally on ballast water for safe navigation and operations as a result of their design and construction (David, 2015). It is wide accepted that the transfer of non-indigenous species across biogeographic barriers is among the greatest threats to the world's oceans and seas and ballast water was identified as one of the prime vectors of this global issue (e.g., Elton, 1958;Carlton, 1985;Wiley, 1997;Gollasch et al., 2002;Bax et al., 2003;Bailey et al., 2005;Vila et al., 2010;Davidson and Simkanin, 2012). Manifold unwanted impacts are caused by introduced species. ...
... In shipping, aquatic organisms are transferred with ballast water, in tank sediments and attached to the ships' hull, sea chests or inside ballast tanks on the tank walls. Ballast water studies conducted in different parts of the world proved that ships facilitate a substantial amount of aquatic organisms transfers across natural boundaries (Carlton, 1985;Williams et al., 1988;Gollasch, 1996;Macdonald and Davidson, 1997;Gollasch et al., 2000aGollasch et al., , 2000bOlenin et al., 2000;Ruiz et al., 2000;Gollasch et al., 2002;Gollasch et al., 2003;David et al., 2007). It has also been confirmed that human pathogens are being transferred with ship's ballast water (McCarthy and Khambaty, 1994;Ruiz et al., 2000;Casale, 2002). ...
... Small fish up to 15 cm in length were also found in ballast tanks as well as eggs and resting stages of animals and plants. Further, that ballast water and the sediment that it contains, is one of the main (if not the main) transfer vectors of potentially toxic phytoplankton species, such as dinoflagellates (see the aforementioned) (Hallegraeff, 1993;Gollasch et al., 2002;David et al., 2007). ...
... It is well known that ballast water transferred by vessels all around the world is a prominent transfer vector of nonindigenous species across natural barriers (e.g., Carlton, 1985;Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1991;Leppäkoski, 1991;Gollasch et al., 2002;Bailey et al., 2007;Ruiz et al., 2000;Davidson and Simkanin, 2012;Katsanevakis et al., 2013). This was recognised as one of the four greatest pressures to the world's oceans and seas, causing global environmental changes, while also posing threat to human health, property and resources (McCarthy and Khambaty, 1994;Minchin, 2007;Olenina et al., 2010;Vila et al., 2010). ...
Information about the profile of ballast water discharges in a port is one of the basic elements of the decision making process in ballast water risk assessment and management, and supports the evaluation of dimensions and processes of aquatic species invasions with vessels ballast water. In the lack of ballast water reporting, ballast water discharge assessments need to be conducted. In this study we have assessed and compared ballast water discharge profiles of two ports with different maritime traffic and cargo profiles, the Port of Hamburg (Germany) and the Muuga Harbour, Port of Tallinn (Estonia). This study shows methods and approaches which can be used to assess volumes and donor ports of ballast water discharges for a port at the level of each vessel call. These methods and approaches can be applied to any port to support the implementation of feasible and efficient ballast water management measures and to enable environmental studies including long-term accumulation risks of disinfection by-products from ballast water management systems making use of active substances, as well as for discharges of other chemical compounds.
... Aquatic organism transfers occur unintentionally (e.g., with vessels) or intentionally (e.g., for aquaculture purposes). When considering the shipping vector globally, aquatic organisms are predominantly transferred with ballast water and related sediments (Carlton, 1985;Hallegraeff and Bolch, 1991;Gollasch, 1996;Ruiz et al., 2000;Hamer et al., 2000;David, 2007;McCollin et al., 2008), but are also found attached to the vessels' hull or sea chests (Gollasch and Riemann-Zürneck, 1996;Gollasch et al., 2002;Fofonoff et al., 2003;Hewitt et al., 2004a,b;Otani, 2006;Coutts and Dodgshun. 2007). ...
... The importance of ballast water as a species introduction vector is also highlighted by the fact that severely harmful species, such as toxin producing phytoplankton and gelatinous zooplankton, have arrived with ballast water. In general, the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP) with vessels has resulted in unwanted negative impacts on natural environments and human health, and has also caused drastic economic losses (Gollasch et al., 2002;Casale, 2002;Kettunen et al., 2009;Vila et al., 2010). By IMO 1 definition " Harmful Aquatic Organisms and Pathogens " are aquatic organisms or pathogens which, if introduced into the sea including estuaries, or into fresh water courses, may create hazards to the environment, human health, property or resources, impair biological diversity or interfere with other legitimate uses of such areas (IMO, 2004). ...
The latest research continues to show that the ballast water issue is very complex, which makes it very challenging to manage. In 2004, the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) was adopted to globally harmonize action against the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens via ships’ ballast water and related sediments. Analyses of the BWM Convention requirements, conducted through different research projects mainly aiming to provide support for the implementation of the BWM Convention, have shown that there are different steps countries need to take and that there are still some open issues which need to be solved. This paper presents some of the main issues identified and the core theoretical and applied measures required to solve these issues, with the aim to support more efficient and coordinated implementation of the BWM Convention requirements in EU seas. The approaches recommended here for the EU may be universally interesting for similar application in other areas of the world.
... Within these habitats, non-indigenous caprellids can contribute to an increase in the biotic resistance of fouling communities by hindering the settlement of larvae of invasive sessile species (Collin and Johnson 2014;Rius et al. 2014), but they also have the ability to displace ecologically similar congeners (Boos 2009;Shucksmith et al. 2009;Ros et al. 2015), posing a risk to native communities. Despite not having a larval stage, introduced caprellids can be anthropogenically dispersed over long distances in association with shiprelated vectors such as ballast water and hull fouling (Gollasch et al. 2002;Ashton et al. 2014). On a local scale, while recreational boating seems effective in the transport of exotic caprellids among marinas, it fails to spread them from these habitats to intertidal rocky shores (Ros et al. 2013a). ...
Knowledge of the habitat use patterns of introduced species in their native or naturalized range can provide unique insights into processes of secondary dispersal and colonization of natural habitats. Caprellid amphipods are small mobile marine epibionts with limited natural dispersal. The global distribution of some caprellid species is mostly the result of anthropogenic transport; however, their subsequent spread beyond artificial habitats is poorly understood. A biogeographic approach, mainly focused on the native-range ecology of introduced and common fouling caprellid amphipods of southern Europe, was used to understand the implications of habitat use patterns for predicting their spread in the introduced regions. Specifically, abundance and composition of caprellid populations were compared among different primary habitats including artificial (floating pontoons), sheltered and wave-exposed rocky shores along the southern and southeastern coasts of Brazil. The findings indicated that artificial habitats act as reservoirs for globally distributed species in both their native and introduced ranges, while endemic species are more scarcely represented. Environmental conditions provided by primary habitats appear important in structuring caprellid assemblages on secondary substrata (basibiont species). Most wide-ranging caprellids were negatively correlated with the level of wave exposure, being more abundant in sheltered (artificial or natural) than in exposed habitats. In this context, Caprella scaura and Paracaprella pusilla, the two introduced caprellids recorded in the Mediterranean, where they are virtually restricted to artificial habitats, may become established in sheltered and even highly polluted natural habitats but hardly colonize wave-exposed rocky shores.
... Many studies undertaken in different parts of the world have shown that shipś ballast water is a major facilitator of the transfer of aquatic organisms, including human pathogens, across natural boundaries (e.g., Carlton, 1985;Ruiz et al., 2000;Gollasch et al., 2002;David et al., 2007). Following the primary introduction, secondary spread may occur as introduced species may be further transferred by, e.g., coastal or local shipping, boating, fisheries etc., or may also spread by natural means (e.g., Minchin et al., 2005;Simkanin et al., 2009;Rup et al., 2010;Bailey et al., 2011;Darling et al., 2012;David et al., 2013). ...
A Decision Support System (DSS) is a supporting tool enhancing a decision-making process. Decision-makers are frequently faced with the problem to take decisions on very complex issues, which requires large data inputs, and a timely decision process. DSSs provide decision makers with a tool to reduce uncertainties, and to simplify and speed-up the decision process as well as to avoid subjectivism induced by the decision-maker and to guarantee transparency of a decision process. The DSS approach has been introduced in the ballast water management (BWM) field and the need primarily arose with the introduction of the selective BWM approach. More precisely, it was recognised that a supporting tool is needed to aid transparency and consistency when deciding on BWM requirements to achieve better environmental protection and lessen burden on vessels. The DSS process starts with communication and data input, continues with risk assessment, BWM decisions, vessel’s action(s), and ends with monitoring and review processes. Throughout the entire decision process information needs to be exchanged with outer (e.g., vessel, other ports) and inner sources (e.g., vessel’s particulars, compliance history), and therefore needs to be supported by adequate communication processes and data management. When required BWM measures were not conducted properly the BWM DSS endpoints range from situations where unmanaged ballast water can be discharged to cases where vessels may be turned away. The chapter provides a detailed step-by-step DSS model which may be used by administrations and other authorities involved in the decision making processes.
... Many studies undertaken in different parts of the world have shown that shipś ballast water is a major facilitator of the transfer of aquatic organisms, including human pathogens, across natural boundaries (e.g., Carlton, 1985;Ruiz et al., 2000;Gollasch et al., 2002;David et al., 2007). Following the primary introduction, secondary spread may occur as introduced species may be further transferred by, e.g., coastal or local shipping, boating, fisheries etc., or may also spread by natural means (e.g., Minchin et al., 2005;Simkanin et al., 2009;Rup et al., 2010;Bailey et al., 2011;Darling et al., 2012;David et al., 2013). ...
Ballast water management was demonstrated to be a complex issue, hence there are no simple solutions. The BWM Convention was adopted to support globally a uniform approach to prevent harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens to be further spread around the world by ballast water and sediment releases, considering the aspects of safe and efficient operations of shipping, while at the same time providing for the protection of natural environments, human health, property and resources. The conclusions and the current state of knowledge is summarized here and presented thematically sorted as per the book chapters. The overall final conclusions are presented at the end including an outlook highlighting future ballast water management related issues which need to be solved.
