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Number of breeding pairs of Caspian Gulls Larus cachinnans (including mixed pairs) in the countries of central and western Europe, with the year of the most recent estimate.
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The Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans has undergone a considerable range expansion in the last 100 years. This expansion is ongoing and, over recent decades, the species has established itself as a breeding bird in central and western Europe. The total central and western European population is estimated to number at least 7,600 pairs, including sizeab...
Citations
... Colonisation is influenced by the dispersal capacity of species and their potential to adapt phenotypically or genetically to novel local conditions and new prey, while sympatric breeding and hybridization may facilitate success. The Caspian Gull (Larus cachinnans) is a new example, that has recently expanded its range from the Black Sea region (Tsevelykh 2022) to various Central European countries: a westward range expansion now over around 2500 km distance within only three decades (Klein and Neubauer 2006;Litwiniak et al. 2021;Chytil et al. 2022). The Netherlands, thus far the most westerly part of its novel range, was colonised around 2012 (Gelderblom 2012). ...
... The spread westward by Caspian Gulls into Europe began in the late twentieth century. Sightings of individuals ringed in Ukraine, observed all over Europe with increasing frequency and at ever greater distances, with the first breeding attempts in Lithuania in 1982, in Belarus and Slovakia in 1989 (Litwiniak et al. 2021), the Czech Republic in 1990 (Chytil et al. 2022), Poland in 1992 (Skórka et al. 2005), Hungary in 1996 (Litwiniak et al. 2021), and in Germany in 2000 (Boschert 2005). The origin of the colonizing birds was supported by sightings of birds that were colour-ringed in the Black and Azov Seas and from Ukraine (Rudenko 2007;Dubinina 2015;Dubinina et al. 2016 was therefore expected. ...
... The spread westward by Caspian Gulls into Europe began in the late twentieth century. Sightings of individuals ringed in Ukraine, observed all over Europe with increasing frequency and at ever greater distances, with the first breeding attempts in Lithuania in 1982, in Belarus and Slovakia in 1989 (Litwiniak et al. 2021), the Czech Republic in 1990 (Chytil et al. 2022), Poland in 1992 (Skórka et al. 2005), Hungary in 1996 (Litwiniak et al. 2021), and in Germany in 2000 (Boschert 2005). The origin of the colonizing birds was supported by sightings of birds that were colour-ringed in the Black and Azov Seas and from Ukraine (Rudenko 2007;Dubinina 2015;Dubinina et al. 2016 was therefore expected. ...
Caspian Gulls (Larus cachinnans) have expanded their breeding range over around 2500 km westward, from the Black Sea to Western Europe, within decades. As a colonising species, it invaded a region with two established guild members that faced poor breeding results from declining resources. A study of breeding performance and diet of the Caspian Gulls, in combination with a tracking study to document foraging behaviour and habitat choice, meant to examine the possible occurrence of interspecific competition. The study revealed a multi-dimensional ecological separation between taxa, resulting from differences in prey choice, spatial segregation in micro- and macro-habitats plus an essential difference in seasonal timing. Caspian gulls focused on freshwater habitats, ditches and canals in agricultural areas, while avoiding offshore marine and intertidal areas, and took different prey in major areas where other taxa co-occurred. On top of that, Caspian Gulls commenced breeding a month earlier than its two sympatric guild members, such that their energetic demands peaked (during chick rearing) well before that in the established taxa. Caspian Gulls, in their early days of colonisation, have not invaded occupied territory but found an open niche.
... The Caspian Gull population is estimated to be at least at 5,700 pairs (Przymencki et al. 2024a), although the number of pairs reached 6,027 in 2023 (unpubl. data from M. Przymencki, K. Litwiniak), indicating a continued increase (Litwiniak et al. 2021. Herring Gull numbers and distribution are rather less known, as the species nests mainly in urban environments ; however, the total population is estimated between 2,700 and 3,000 pairs (Chodkiewicz et al. 2015). ...
During spring and summer 2023, the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus caused mass mortality among colony-breeding gulls and terns in Poland. Surveys were primarily focused within breeding colonies of Black-headed Gulls
Chroicocephalus ridibundus, an ‘umbrella species’ whose breeding colonies serve as nesting sites for other scarce gull and tern species. In total, during the survey period we recorded the deaths of at least 46 Common Gulls Larus canus, 21 Mediterranean Gulls Ichthyaetus melanocephalus, nine Caspian Gulls Larus cachinnans, two Herring Gulls Larus argentatus, 1,369 Common Terns Sterna hirundo, 42 Little Terns Sternula albifrons, three Black Terns Chlidonias niger, two Whiskered Terns Chlidonias hybrida and 35 Sandwich Terns Thalasseus sandvicensis. The most affected populations were those of Mediterranean Gulls (12% of the Polish breeding population) and Common Terns (16% of the Polish breeding population). Common Terns and Common Gulls were considered the most vulnerable species to longer-term negative population impacts. It is strongly recommended to monitor mortality and productivity of all gull and tern species during future breeding seasons, to determine the ongoing impact of HPAI.
... Litwiniak et al. (2021) detailed the breeding-range expansion of the Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans in Europe. The paper concluded by saying that: 'The Caspian Gull is an easy-to-study bird, and we can continue to follow its expansion in Europe in real time.' ...
... Since that paper was written, the species has continued to increase and extend its range in Europe. In this paper, we present an update on the increase in both numbers and range across Europe since the publication of Litwiniak et al. (2021). ...
... The Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans has undergone a considerable range expansion in Europe in the last 100 years. Litwiniak et al. (2021) detailed this expansion up to 2020. Given its large size, conspicuousness and the often-straightforward method of monitoring its nesting areas, the Caspian Gull is an easy species to study, and it is possible to follow its expansion in Europe in real time. ...
Litwiniak et al. (2021) detailed the breeding-range expansion of the Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans in Europe up to 2020. The paper concluded by saying that: ‘The Caspian Gull is an easy-to-study bird, and we can continue to follow its expansion in Europe in real time.’ Since that paper was written, the species has continued to increase and extend its range in Europe. In this paper, we present an update on the increase in both numbers and range across Europe since the publication of Litwiniak et al. (2021).
... The Lesser Black-backed Gull is one of several Northern Hemisphere gull species, in which numbers, that were low initially (often because of intensive human exploitation), suddenly increased exponentially, reached some maximum and then declined (Morais et al. 1998, Spaans 1998ab, Skórka et al. 2005, Camphuysen 2013, Anderson et al. 2016, Giroux et al. 2016, Chytil et al. 2021, Litwiniak et al. 2021. The ability of large gulls to adapt to human-related environments and food is the usual explanation, and this includes foraging and feeding on landfills, in urban or rural environments, or behind fishing vessels, but also a fairly recently devel-oped readiness to nest on roofs of buildings in cities and industrial areas (Blokpoel & Scharf 1991, Belant 1997, Duhem et al. 2003, Rock 2005, Spelt et al. 2020. ...
The population increase of Lesser Black-backed Gulls in the Netherlands triggered investigations into lifehistory, migratory movements, and foraging ecology during 16 years of nest-monitoring, colour-ringing and GPStracking on Texel
(Wadden Sea). Main objective was to obtain comprehensive ecological data of breeding
performance within the context of annual cycle, shifts in resources, prey types, and habitat use. Migration strategies ranged from short- (France, England), medium (Portugal, Spain) to long-distance (NW Africa), utilising marine, coastal, or terrestrial, region-specific resources. Young birds travelled on average further than older individuals. Strong within-colony philopatry was found, strongest in males. Assessments of mate-fidelity indicated serial, social monogamy. Unexpectedly, given increasing population trends when the study commenced, fledging rates were low and declining egg volumes, smaller hatchlings, declining mass at fledging, and high levels of cannibalism indicated structural food stress. Fledgling mass was well below that of chicks in historical studies, suggesting insufficient provisioning. Breeding was highly synchronised and early nesters fledged more young than late pairs. The onset of breeding was significantly delayed over the years, chick depredation rates declined, overall breeding success became more variable. Marine, urban, and rural habitats, mostly within 80km from the colony were used for foraging. Marine prey, mostly fisheries discards, formed the principal prey for most birds, supplemented with food found in agricultural areas. Human waste was found in only 7%. of prey samples. A consistent decline of marine prey (in line with developing restrictions in fisheries), combined with signals pointing at food stress, suggests that the population is unable to boost reproductive success with currently existing foraging opportunities.
... Impressive population growth and invasion of some of large gull species into new areas occurred also in Poland , Ukraine (Gavrilyuk et al. 2015) and continental European Russia near the eastern border of Belarus (Borisov 2012, Numerov & Vengerov 2012, Zubakin 2013. The Caspian Gull was probably the most successful when colonizing not only Eastern Europe (Atamas & Loparev 2005, Yakovets & Nikiforov 2009, Groot Koerkamp 2013, but also its central part and it currently continues to expand the range further west (Litwiniak et al. 2021). The population dynamics of large gulls, especially of the Caspian Gull, is well documented and monitored in neighbouring Poland , Przymencki et al. 2022. ...
Ornis Polonica 2023, 64: 1–16. For the first time since 2009, the population status and dynamics of large white-headed gulls from the genus Larus have been assessed based on all known breeding cases in Belarus. We collated all the available (both published and unpublished) data and results of our own censuses in most important breeding sites. The total population size was estimated at 8,000-9,500 breeding pairs in 2018-2022 and have increased about 3.5 times since 2009. 70-80% of gulls nested in 8 large colonies with more than 100 pairs, including the largest Gatovo colony, which grew to 5,000 pairs. About 75% of gulls nested on the roofs in 9 cities and towns, and 25% in the natural habitats. During the study period, there were at least 4,800 pairs of Caspian Gulls L. cachinnans and 800 pairs of Herring Gulls L. argentatus. Several Lesser Black-backed L. fuscus and Yellow-legged Gulls L. michahellis nested in Gatovo colony, mostly paired with other species. The rest of the estimated population may include both mixed and 'pure' pairs, as well as hybrids, the number of which could not be more accurately determined. Two numerous species entered Belarus in the 1980s: Herring Gulls-probably from the north, Caspian Gulls-from the south. By now, the Caspian Gull can be found almost all over the country and dominates most of the known nesting sites, except for a few sites on raised bogs and lakes in the north, where the Herring Gull can still be the most numerous. The increase of the Herring Gull's population was much stronger until the 2000s and has slowed down more recently, but the growth rate of the Caspian Gull exceeded it by more than an order of magnitude in the last two decades. The newly observed rooftop nesting of the Caspian Gull contributed to the rapid expansion and current high numbers of this species in Belarus, and, interestingly , this phenomenon is extremely rare elsewhere. The rapid growth of populations of large gulls in the area of Minsk city is most likely linked to the vicinity of an abundant foraging ground in the largest landfill in the country as well as availability of secure nesting sites (rooftops).
... According to estimates from other countries presented by Litwiniak et al. (2021), Poland holds at least half of the whole population of Caspian Gulls breeding in central and Western Europe and 65-68% of breeding population in European Union. The numbers still increase in Poland and as well as in other countries, but it seems that in Poland Caspian Gulls have colonized inland areas previously unoccupied by other large gulls. ...
Mewa białogłowa Larus cachinnans zaczęła gniazdować w Polsce na początku lat 80. XX w. Od 1989 gatunek ten gniazduje w kraju corocznie, ale jak dotąd nie przeprowadzono kompletnego cenzusu populacji lęgowej. By scharakteryzować trend, zebraliśmy dane dotyczące liczebności i rozmieszczenia lęgowych mew białogłowych do 2020 roku od obserwatorów z całego kraju. W roku 2021 zorganizowaliśmy cenzus, mający na celu najbardziej kompletną ocenę liczebności populacji. W roku 2021 stwierdzono w Polsce gniazdowanie 5554 par w 44 miejscach. W poszczególnych miejscach gniazdowało od 1 do 1924 par. Prawie 91% par było skoncentrowanych w 9 dużych koloniach, liczących >100 par. W 21 miejscach stwierdzono do 10 par, a w 10 z nich gniazdowały tylko pojedyncze pary. 66% miejsc lęgowych było zlokalizowanych w południowej części kraju, ale coraz więcej par zasiedla nowe miejsca, m.in. na Pojezierzu Gnieźnieńskim. Średni roczny przyrost populacji w latach 1989–2021 został oszacowany na 14,8% (95% przedział ufności: 12,3–17,3%). Jest on najsilniejszym wzrostem stwierdzonym wśród wszystkich gniazdujących w Polsce ptaków. Przewidujemy, że liczebność mewy białogłowej w Polsce może nadal rosnąć z uwagi na liczne, nadal niezasiedlone, optymalne dla tego gatunku miejsca lęgowe, szczególnie w północnej i zachodniej części kraju. Ten spektakularny wzrost ma przypuszczalnie swoje źródła także w dostępności do składowisk odpadów komunalnych będących ważnym źródłem pokarmu, co może wpływać na wysoką produktywność gatunku oraz przeżywalność populacji. Wzrost liczebności populacji lęgowej mewy białogłowej jest dobrym przykładem wielkoskalowych zmian w populacjach ptaków w okresie antropocenu w Europie.
... In other countries this phenomenon is also uncommon. Below we summarize the data from other countries based on Litwiniak et al. (2021) and personal communications ( Table 2). ...
... Similar situation can be found in other cities along the Danube river. In Paris a mixed pair of Caspian and Yellow-legged Gull breeding on a roof-top was observed in 2018 (Litwiniak et al. 2021). The first breeding record in Berlin was confirmed in 2015: gulls nested on a roof of a cinema in the city centre (Kormannshaus & Steiof 2015). ...
... It was near the colony of Herring and Yellow-legged Gulls. Next case in Germany was noticed in Frankfurt am Main in 2015 and 2016 (Rösler 2015, Litwiniak et al. 2021). In 2019 a mixed pair of Caspian and Lesser Black-Backed Gull was also observed in this place. ...
[Polish] Choć gniazdowanie na dachach jest powszechne u niektórych gatunków dużych mew, to u mewy białogłowej Larus cachinnans wciąż pozostaje zjawiskiem rzadkim. Znane są tylko pojedyncze przypadki takiego gniazdowania tego gatunku w Europie. Pierwsze stwierdzenie lęgów na dachach w Polsce miało miejsce w Warszawie w roku 2018 . Mewy białogłowe gniazdowały tam na 6-piętrowym budynku mieszkalnym w kolonii mieszanej razem z mewami srebrzystą L. argentatus, romańską L. michahellis i żółtonogą L. fuscus. Inna kolonia na dachu, gdzie gniazdowały mewy białogłowe, została znaleziona w tym samym roku w Warszawie na hali produkcyjnej. W artykule opisujemy osiem innych, znanych nam przypadków z Europy, gdzie potwierdzono gniazdowanie tego gatunku na dachach. Wybieranie tego typu siedliska do gniazdowania wydaje się być efektywną strategią dla mew. Przewidujemy, że zjawisko zasiedlania dachów budynków będzie coraz częstsze, nie tyko w Polsce, ale też w Europie.
... The Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans is a large gull that inhabits eastern Europe and central Asia, but its populations have undergone a considerable range expansion over the last 100 years. Their breeding range has expanded from eastern Europe to Lithuania in the north, and the Netherlands in the west, with the species now breeding in several central and western European countries: Poland, Belarus, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Germany, Hungary, and The Netherlands (Neubauer et al. 2007, Litwiniak et al. 2021. They mostly nest in colonies on rocky, grassy, and sandy islands, and on rooftops of buildings (Burger et al. 2020, Litwiniak et al. 2021. ...
... Their breeding range has expanded from eastern Europe to Lithuania in the north, and the Netherlands in the west, with the species now breeding in several central and western European countries: Poland, Belarus, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Germany, Hungary, and The Netherlands (Neubauer et al. 2007, Litwiniak et al. 2021. They mostly nest in colonies on rocky, grassy, and sandy islands, and on rooftops of buildings (Burger et al. 2020, Litwiniak et al. 2021. Their breeding season lasts from March to July after which they migrate to western, central, and northern Europe, where they can be seen amongst other large gulls, often feeding at rubbish dumps (Zagalska-Neubauer & Neubauer 2012, Burger et al. 2020. ...
The Caspian Gull is a breeding species of eastern Europe and central Asia, whose breeding range has over the last 100 years been expanding to western parts of Europe. It is regularly seen on migration and wintering in Croatia. Since the historical literature data for Larus cachinnans in Croatia mainly refer to the Yellow-legged Gull, the aim of this research was to determine the origin of Caspian Gulls wintering in Croatia. Recoveries from the Prudinec rubbish dump in Zagreb and the ones obtained from the ringing archive of the Institute of Ornithology, Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts have been analysed. Ringed individuals seen in Croatia belong to the populations from central and eastern Europe, and the first ringed individual from the Black Sea population has been recorded. Compared to the available literature data, four new countries of origin of Caspian Gulls seen in Croatia have been recorded: Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Romania. The longest distance from the place of recovery (Croatia) to the place where the individual has been ringed (Ukraine) is 1507 kilometres. Ringed individuals were recorded in Croatia from October to March.
Knowing the growth rate of chicks is important in ecological and evolutionary studies, since it allows to determine their age. In this article, we analysed the growth rate of chicks of the Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans for the first time for the species and we present a method of age estimation based on biometric measurements. The data were collected in 2005 and 2007 at Włocławek Reservoir (C Poland) and 2019–2020 at Mietków Reservoir (SW Poland). A total of 275 chicks were captured and ringed, and 150 of them were recaptured and measured more than once (in total 546 captures). During each capture, four biometric traits were taken: total head length (DCG), tarsus length (DT), bill height at the gonys (WD), and body mass (MA). Chicks’ average measurements at hatching were: DCG – 47 mm, DT – 24.2 mm, WD – 7 mm, MA – 55.1 g. These traits on the 35th day of chicks’ life, i.e. approximate fledging time, reached on average: DCG – 118.7 mm, DT – 76 mm, WD – 14 mm, MA – 994.7 g. DCG, WD, DT grew rather uniformly until reaching relatively stable asymptote, only the MA growth curve had a sigmoid shape. The average growth rate of traits (except WD) initially increased and then slowed down and was, respectively: DCG – 1.99 mm/day, with a peak on the 7th day of life (3.1 mm); DT – 1.44 mm/day, the highest increase was recorded on the 10th day of life (3.1 mm); WD – 0.2 mm/day, with a tendency to decline over time. Chicks’ MA was increasing exponentially until the 10th day of their life and the mean MA increase reached 26.1 g/day. The highest MA increase was recorded on the 16th day of chicks life (48.4 g/day). The data characterize the growth rate of Caspian Gull chicks and provide a valuable tool for estimating their age, and thus allow for more precise fieldwork planning in gull breeding colonies. This offers the possibility to reconstruct the approximate date of hatching and to obtain information on breeding phenology in a colony. The MS Excel spreadsheet with formulas for calculating the age of the chick based on the two most useful measurements in determining the age (DCG and MA) was made available for download (Appendix 1 to this work, at the www.ornis-polonica.pl website).
The Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans is a large gull species, which expands its breeding area in Europe and increases in numbers. The first Polish breeding records of the species come from the early 1980s, and its current population is estimated at 3000–3500 breeding pairs. Despite its widespread occurrence on the continent, the species reproductive ecology has not been well described, and many aspects of its biology still remain unknown. In 2019–2020 we studied the breeding ecology of the Caspian Gull at Mietków Reservoir (Lower Silesia). We recorded a minimum of 260 breeding pairs in 2019 and at least 190 pairs in 2020. Birds started nesting in the first decade of April. Dimensions of nests (medians) were as follows: outer diameter – 47 cm, inner diameter – 23 cm, height – 7 cm, depth – 7 cm. Mean volume of the first eggs, called A-eggs was 84.4 cm3, B-eggs – 82.3 cm3 and C-eggs – 76.6 cm3. Length, width and volume of eggs tended to decrease with the increasing laying date. The full clutch volume was 241.2 cm3 and 245.2 cm3 in 2019 and 2020, respectively. Relative volumes of C-egg in clutches constituted 0.91 and 0.93 of the mean volume of A- and B-eggs in the two study years, respectively. In both study years 15.5–15.9% of eggs from 25.6–32.1% of clutches were lost, and 2.43–2.48 chicks per a breeding pair hatched. In 2019 the daily chick survival rate was estimated at ~0.95, while the probability of the nestling survival until the age of 22 days after hatching was ~0.36 (before the flooding of the colony due to heavy rainfall). The second (after 17 May) flooding of the colony resulted in the death of more than 90% of nestlings. In 2020 the survival rate of the young was lower and more variable than the year before, and the probability of survival until the 17th day of life was only ~0.23. We compare our data with the results obtained in other colonies in Poland and Ukraine.
